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COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL 


GEOGRAPHY 


A   TEXT   BOOK   FOR   SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  AND  PRIVATE  •  REFERENCE 


BY 

JOHN  J.  MACFARLANE,  A.M. 

LIBRARIAN    OF  THE   PHILADELPHIA   COMMERCIAL   MUSEUM 


EDITED  BY 

EDWIN   HEBDEN,  A.M. 

PRINCIPAL   GROUP   A   BALTIMORE   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


SADLER-ROWE     COMPANY. 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHERS 
BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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_^3 


COPYRIGHTED    IQOI 

SADLER-ROWE   COMPANY 


WILLIAMS   &   WILKINS   COMPANY   PRESS 
BALTIMORE  . 


PREFACE. 


The  rapid  expansion  of  the  foreigfn  trade  and  the  increasing 
domestic  commerce  of  the  United  States  have  made  it  necessary  for 
the  business  man  to  inform  himself  as  to  the  kind,  quantity  and  value 
of  the  various  natural  and  manufactured  products  that  are  bought  and 
sold  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  It  is  also  desirable  for  him  to 
know  why  certain  countries  have  controlled  certain  lines  of  trade  in 
the  past  and  whether  present  conditions  are  such  that  he  may  compete 
successfully  in  the  world's  neutral  markets. 

The  author  is  daily  called  upon  to  answer  questions  coming  from 
students,  teachers  and  business  men  bearing  upon  such  topics  touch- 
ing the  industry  and  commerce  of  the  world. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  it  is  assumed  that  the  student 
already  has  a  fair  knowledge  of  political  and  physical  geography. 
Commodities  are  first  treated  separately  following  the  classification 
given  in  the  United  States  Government  reports.  The  processes  of 
manufacture  of  some  of  the  more  important  articles  are  incidentally 
given  in  order  to  aid  in  understanding  any  peculiarities  in  them 
affecting  the  course  of  trade. 

The  countries  in  each  continent  are  next  considered  in  the  order 
of  their  importance  to  the  trade  of  the  United  States.  The  physical 
and  other  conditions  affecting  trade  are  also  considered  as  well  as  the 
weights  and  measures,  the  currency,  and  the  languages  in  use  in  each 
country.  Trade  routes,  government  revenues,  aids  to  commerce, 
instruments  of  exchange,  and  the  metric  system,  and  their  effect  upon 
commerce  are  treated  in  separate  chapters. 

Statistics  are  used  only  to  the  extent  necessary  to  show  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  various  commodities  and  different  countries 
engaged  in  the  world's  trade.  For  United  States  imports  and  exports 
those  of  the  fiscal  years  ending  June  30  are  given,  as  these  are  the  only 
periods  for  which  complete  statistics  are  published.     For  the  other 


92380 


countries  the  statistics  g-iven  are  in  most  cases  for  calendar  years. 
In  all  cases  round  numbers  are  g^iven. 

More  complete  statistics  are  collected  in  an  appendix  which  will 
be  revised  from  time  to  time.  It  is  also  intended  that  the  student 
shall  draw  largely  from  the  reports  issued  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment in  the  preparation  of  his  class  room  exercises,  thus  keeping" 
the  book  ''always  up  to  date."  Charts  are  freely  interspersed  through- 
out the  book,  graphically  showing  the  progress  of  trade  and  also  the 
relative  importance  of  various  countries  in  the  trade  in  certain  com- 
modities. 

Charts,  simple  in  form,  have  been  adopted  in  order  that  the  stu- 
dent may  be  encouraged  to  construct  original  charts  on  similar  forms 
whicii  are  to  be  furnished.  In  the  production  maps  only  those  regions 
of  commercial  importance  are  indicated.  Maps  showing-  the  promi- 
nent commercial  features  of  each  country  are  also  g^iven. 

From  the  list  of  supplementary  publications  gfiven  in  the  appendix 
it  will  be  seen  that  teachers  can  have  at  their  command  without  cost 
a  vast  storehouse  of  commercial  and  industrial  information.  When 
collections  of  products  can  be  obtained  or  commercial  museums 
visited  they  will  be  found  important  adjuncts  to  the  study  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  geography. 

The  author  is  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  Edwin  Hebden  for  the  valu- 
able advice  and  assistance  given  him  in  the  editing  of  the  work  and 
in  adapting  it  to  the  present  day  requirements  of  the  school  room, 
and  also  to  Mr.  H.  M.  Rowe  for  many  helpful  sug-gestions  and 
criticisms. 

Free  use  has  been  made  of  government  reports,  especially  of  the 
Monthly  Summary  of  Finance  and  Commerce  of  the  United  States 
and  the  monographs  published  in  them  prepared  by  Hon.  O.  P. 
Austin,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department.  The 
works  of  English  gfeographers  such  as  Herbertson,  Keltic,  Meiklejohn, 
Bartholomew  and  Chisolm,  and  American  geographers  as  Gannett, 
Shaler,  Davis,  Tarr  and  others,  the  Mineral  Industries  by  Rothwell 
and  the  Cyclopedia  of  Commerce,  and  Cyclopedia  of  Common  Things 
have  been  freely  used. 

The  Author. 


Contents. 


Page. 

PREFACE iii 

INTRODUCTION: 

Relation  of  Commerce  and  Industry  to  Geography i 

Natural  Forces: 

Motions  of  the  Earth 2 

Atmosphere 3 

Weight  of— Barometric  Pressure •.    .    .    .  3 

Temperature — Isotherms 4 

Motion — Winds 5 

Permanent: — Trades,  Doldrums,  Westerlies 5 

Periodic: — Monsoons,  Land  and  Sea  Breeze 6 

Irregular: — Sirocco,  Solano,  Chinook,  Khamsin,  Simoon.  .  7 

Moisture — Rainfall 8 

Climatic  Regions: 

Tropical,    Sub-tropical,  Warm  Temperate,    Cool  Temperate,   Sub- 
arctic     9 

Animal  Life 10 

Progress   of    Man's   Industries:— Hunting,    Fishing,    Pastoral, 

Agricultural,  Manufacturing 10 

International  Date  Line 13 

Standard  Time 14 

U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 15 

Part  I.     COMMERCIAL    PRODUCTS. 

INTRODUCTION 19 

PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE: 

Food  Products  of  Vegetable  Origin: 

Cereals: — BreadstufTs 21 

Wheat 21 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn ,26 

Oats 29 

Barley 3° 

Rye • 31 

Buckwheat 3i 

Other  Cereals:— Rice,  Millet 3^ 

V 


Food  Products  of  Vegetable  Origin— Con tifiued.  Page. 

Fruits  and  Nuts: 

Fruits: — Apples,  Prunes,  Grapes,  Raisins,  Currants,  Bananas, 

Oranges,  Lemons,  Limes,  Citrons,  Dates,  Figs,  Pineapples.    .  34 

Nuts:— Almonds,  Cocoanuts,  Chestnuts,  Brazilnuts 38 

Vegetables ' 39 

Farinaceous  Foods 41 

Spices  and  Condiments 42 

Stimulants 43 

Aromatip,  or  Non-Alcoholic  Stimulants: 

Coffee 43 

Tea 46 

Cocoa.     .   .    .  • 50 

Mate. 51 

Alcoholic  Stimulants: 

Wine 52 

Distilled  Spirits: 

Alcohol,  Brandy,  Rum,  Whiskey 54 

Malt  Liquors: — Beer 55 

Narcotics: 

Tobacco 59 

Opium 62 

Hops ' 63 

Sugar: 

Cane    Sugar,    or    Sucrose:— Sugar    Cane,  Beet    Root,   Maple, 

Sorghum,  Palm 64 

Glucose,  or  Grape  Sugar 66 

Molasses  and  Sirup 71 

Food  Products  of  Animal  Origin: 

Live  Stock: 

Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs 71 

Provisions: 

Beef  Products— Hog  Products,  Mutton,  Oleomargarine 75 

Dairy  Products— Milk,  Butter,  Cheese yy 

Poultry— Eggs 80 

Raw  Materials  of  Vegetable  Origin: 

Textile  Fibres 81 

Surface  Fibres : 

Cotton 81 

Bast  Fibres : 

t/  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  Ramie 85 

Structural  Fibres  : 

Manila  Hemp,  Sisal  Hemp 89 

vi 


Raw  Materials  of  Vegetable  Origin — Continued.  Page. 

Vegetgible  Oils,  Oil  Seeds,  and  Oil  Cakes 90 

Fixed,  or  Expressed,  Oils  : 

Olive,     Linseed,    Palm,    Cocoanut,    Peanut,    Cottonseed, 

Corn 90 

Essential,  or  Volatile,  Oils: 

Lavender,  Bergamot,  Attar  of  Roses,  Peppermint,  Turpen- 
tine    95 

Gums,  Gum-Resins,  Resins,  and  Rubbers  : 

Gums — Arabic,  Senegal,  Tragacanth 96 

Gum-Resins — Myrrh,  Frankincense,  Benzoin,  Assafoetida.     .    .  96 

Resins— Rosin,  Pitch,  Copal,  Kauri-gum 97 

Rubbers — Caoutchouc,  Gutta-Percha 97 

Dye-Stuffs: 

Dye-woods — Logwood,  Fustic,  Brazil-wood,  Quercitron.    .    .    .  loi 

Other  Dye-stuffs— -Indigo,  Madder,  Annatto 102 

Tanning  Materials: 

Barks— Oak,  Hemlock,  Wattle 103 

Fruits — Valonia,  Myrobolans,  Divi-divi 103 

Leaves — Sumac 104 

Extracts — Cutch,  Gambler 104 

Galls — Nutgalls 104 

Raw  Materials  of  Animal  Origin  : 

Wool 104 

Silk 109 

Hides  and  Skins 113 

Bones,  Horn,  Hoofs,  Hair,  Bristles. 114 

Fur 116 

Feathers 117 

Ivory 118 

PRODUCTS   OF   FOREST: 

Woods — Hard,  Soft 121 

PRODUCTS    OF   FISHERIES: 

Fish,  Oysters 124 

MINERAL   PRODUCTS: 
Metallic: 

Iron  and  Steel 129 

Gold 134 

Silver 137 

Copper 138 

Lead,  Zinc 140 

vii 


MINERAL   FRODUCTS-Confinued.  Page. 

Aluminum,    Mercury,    Manganese,    Antimony,    Arsenic, 

Tin,  Nickel,  Platinum,  Bismuth 141 

Non-Metallic: 

Coal  and  Coke I44 

Petroleum 151 

Asphalt,  Ozocerite 155 

Structural  Minerals: 

Stone,  Clay,  Cement 156 

Abrasives: 158 

Minor  Products: 

Plumbago,  or  Graphite,   Salt,  Sulphur,  Precious    Stones, 

Asbestos,  Mica.       ' 160 

PRODUCTS    OF   MANUFACTURE: 
Textiles: 

Cotton  Manufactures 165 

Woolen   Manufactures 170 

Silk  Manufactures 172 

Linen  Manufactures 174 

Iron  and  Steel 174 

Leather 180 

Chemicals: 

Drugs  and  Medicines 183 

Commercial  Chemicals 184 

Fertilizers 186 

Paper 189 

Pottery 192 

Glassware 194 


Part  1 1. 

The  climate  and  other   physical   conditions  affecting   the   commercial 
progress  of   different  countries,   and  their   production,  industries 
and  commerce. 
By  countries: 
^      The  United  States: 

Its  industrial  and  commercial  progress,  internal  commerce  and 

foreign  trade 

Europe: 

United  Kingdom 

Germany 

viii 


Europe — Continued.  Page. 

France 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Italy • 

Spain 

Denmark 

/Switzerland •     .    . 
Austria-Hungary 

Russia 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Other  European  Countries 

North  America: 

British  North  America 

Mexico 

Cuba 

British  West  Indies 

Central  America 

Puerto  Rico 

Other  West  Indies     


Asia: 

British  East  Indies 

Japan  

China 

Dutch  East  Indies  , 
Asiatic  Russia  .    .    , 
Turkey  in  Asia     . 
Other  Asia     .    , 


South  America: 

Brazil 

Argentina 

Chile 

Venezuela 

Colombia 

Other  South  America 

Oceania: 

British  Australasia  .    . 

Hawaii 

Philippine  Islands  .    . 
Other  Oceania     .    . 


Afkica:  Page. 

British  Africa 

Egypt 

Other  Africa 

Part  III. 

Power  used  in  manufacturing— Animal,  water,  steam,  electricity,  etc.     . 

Transportation — By  means  of  animals,  canals,  ocean  vessels,  railroads, 
etc 

Communication — By  mail,  cable,  telegraph  and  telephone 

Government  revenues  from  commerce — Tariffs,  internal  revenue,  etc.  .    . 

Government  aids  to  commerce — Consular  service,  consular  reports,  depart- 
mental reports  and  investigations,  subsidies 

Fairs,  expositions,  commercial  museums,  etc 

Instruments  of  exchange — Money,  drafts,  credits,  etc 

The  metric  system — What  it  is,  where  it  is  used,  and  how  its  use  would 
benefit  foreign  trade 


This  edition  is  only  the  first  part 
OF  the  complete  book.  For  contents 
of  second  half  see  Parts  II  and  III 
above. 

A  sufficient  number  of  the  second 

HALF  WILL  BE  BOUND  SEPARATELY  FOR 
THE  USE  OF  THOSE  WHO  HAVE  PURCHASED 
THE  FIRST  PART.  ThE  BOOK  WILL  THERE- 
AFTER BE  BOUND  IN  ONE  VOLUME. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


THE  WORKING  SCHEME. 

This  work  is  intended  to  be  something  more  than  an  illustrated 
essay  on  the  subjects  treated.  It  is  intended  rather  as  a  working  guide 
to  the  student  in  his  investigation  of  the  ever  changing  conditions  of 
commercial  geography,  the  purpose  being  to  so  train  him  as  an  investi- 
gator that  he  may  group  and  analyse  correctly  the  information  given 
in  the  annual  Government  Reports  touching  the  various  subjects 
treated,  from  which  as  a  business  man  he  must  glean  his  information. 

To  accomplish  this  result  four  distinct  methods  of  illustration  have 
been  adopted,  which  present  most  graphically  the  history  and  present 
status  of  the  commercial  and  industrial  commodities  of  the  world,  as 
follows : 

1  Outline  Maps  showing  regions  and  areas  of  production  and  con- 
sumption.    See  illustration,  p.  22. 

2  The  Rectangular  Chart  to  show  proportionate  production  of 
commodities  in  the  various  countries  of  the  world.  See  illustration,  p.  23. 

3  The  Rectangular  Line  Chart  to  show  the  volumes  of  trade  in  the 
various  commodities.    See  illustrations,  pp.  25  and  45. 

4  The  Straight  Line  Chart  to  show  per  capita  consumption  in  the 
various  countries.    See  illustration,  p.  46. 

ALWAYS    UP  TO    DATE. 

It  is  intended  that  each  pupil  shall  reproduce  and  continue  similar 
charts,  maps,  etc.,  from  information  taken  from  the  annual  Government 
Reports  bearing  on  the  various  subjects,  on  blanks  to  be  provided,  thus 
supplying  a  practical  laboratory  method  in  the  gathering  and  assimila- 
tion of  the  various  changes  which  are  continually  taking  place  in  the 
production,  value  and  trade  importance  of  the  various  commodities, 
thus  keeping  the  subject-matter  "always  up  to  date." 

Blank  charts  and  maps  will  be  supplied  to  teachers  or  schools  by 
the  publishers  in  any  quantities  desired. 

A  Teacher's  Syllabus,  containing  outlines  for  class  work  and 
instruction,  with  full  directions  for  the  use  of  the  various  Government 
Reports  and  documents  in  the  preparation  of  supplementary  charts, 
maps,  drills  and  exercises,  listed  in  the  Appendix,  will  be  supplied  by 
the  publishers  to  teachers  who  use  this  work  as  the  regular  text-book 
in  their  classes. 

The  issue  of  the  last  half  of  this  book  has  been  delayed  to  include 
the  figures  of  the  1900  Census.    It  will  be  ready  early  in  the  fall. 

SADLER-ROWE   COMPANY, 

BALTIMORE,  MD. 


REFERENCE    BOOKS. 


A  list  of  valuable  Reference  Books  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 


Schools    desiring   to  secure    collections  of   products  should 
correspond  with  the  publishers  of  this  book. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Relation  of  Commerce  and  Industry  to  Geography.     Natural 

Forces. 

Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography  treats  of  the  numerous  com- 
modities produced  in  the  different  parts  of  the  world  accessible  to  man ; 
whether  they  are  found  in  a  natural  state  and  converted  to  the  use  of 
man,  or  cultivated  and  grown  by  his  aid,  or  manufactured  and  changed 
in  form  or  composition  so  as  to  be  fitted  for  his  use.  It  also  treats  of 
the  markets  for  such  commodities  and  their  transportation.  All  pro- 
ductions of  whatever  kind  come  originally  from  the  earth,  but  they 
are  widely  diverse  in  its  different  portions.  While  the  soil  and  climate 
of  one  section  may  give  an  abundance  of  natural  products,  another 
may  possess  the  water  power  necessary  to  work  up  these  products,  or 
a  third  may  be  most  favorably  located  for  their  distribution. 

Natural  conditions  therefore  determine  in  a  great  degree  our 
productions  and  industries,  and  the  routes  for  their  transportation. 
Hence  this  branch  of  geography  must  take  into  consideration  some  of 
the  physical  features  of  the  earth,  its  climates  and  seasons,  conditions 
which  determine  markets  and  routes  of  travel,  and  the  means  for  fixing 
their  location;  all  as  tending  to  make  the  earth  useful  to  man  and 
0  enable  him  to  live  upon  it. 

Commercial  Geography  regards  the  world  purely  from  a  com- 
mercial and  industrial  standpoint.  In  this  sense  the  Mississippi  river 
is  interesting,  not  because  it  is  one  of  the  longest  rivers  in  the  world, 
rising  in  Minnesota,  and  with  its  large  tributaries  serving«to  drain  its 


2  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

great  valley,  but  because  it  penetrates  far  into  the  interior  of  the  conti- 
nent and  is  used  by  man  as  the  natural  channel  by  which  a  large  portion 
of  the  products  of  the  vast  western  prairies  may  be  sent  to  other  parts 
of  the  world  to  feed  their  teeming  population.  The  Appalachian 
mountains  are  interesting,  not  because  geologically  they  are  the 
oldest  range  on  the  continent,  but  because  on  their  slopes  cattle  and 
sheep  may  feed  and  timber  grow,  and  in  their  interior  iron  and  coal 
abound.  This  branch  of  geography,  then,  considers  rivers  as  channels 
of  trade,  the  ocean  as  the  highway  of  (commerce,  countries  as  producers 
or  consumers. 

The  diversity  of  climate,  seasons,  and  regional  conditions  depends 
primarily  upon  the  relation  of  the  earth  to  the  sun.  Although  the 
earth  is  distant  about  ninety-five  million  miles  from  the  sun,  never- 
theless all  life  on  the  earth  is  dependent  upon  the  light  and  heat  of 
the  sun.  Nor  are  the  light  and  heat  equally  distributed  and  of  equal 
effect  on  all  parts  of  the  earth  at  all  times ;  but  by  reason  of  the  incli- 
nation of  the  earth's  axis,  its  daily  rotation  thereon,  and  its  annual 
journey  around  the  sun,  we  have  the  great  regions  or  zones  of  heat  and 
cold,  the  succession  of  day  and  night,  and  the  changes  of  the  seasons. 
Even  these  are  by  no  means  absolutely  exact  in  location,  degree  of 
intensity,  or  duration ;  for,  again  owing  to  the  effect  of  the  sun  on  the 
land,  on  the  water,  and  on  the  atmosphere,  and  to  the  daily  rotation 
of  the  earth,  the  atmosphere  is  set  in  motion  occasioning  winds  which 
drive  our  ships  and  still  further  distribute  moisture  and  heat  and  cold, 
tides  are  affected,  great  movements  of  the  waters  arise — those  currents 
of  the  ocean  so  important  to  the  commerce  of  the  world  and  powerful 
in  their  climatic  effects — all  acting  and  reacting  one  upon  another.  It 
will  not  be  amiss,  therefore,  to  review  very  briefly*  some  of  these 
important  factors  for  the  better  appreciation  of  their  effects  upon  the 
productions  of  the  earth  and  in  their  usefulness  to  man. 

The  earth  is  nearly  spherical  in  form.  Its  axis  is  inclined  23^° 
toward  the  plane  of  its  orbit  and  always  points  to  the  North  Star.  It 
has  two  motions,  the  daily  and  the  yearly  motion.     The  daily  motion 


*It  is  presumed  in  this  book  that  the  student  has  a  fair  working  knowledge  of  Physical, 
Mathematical  and  Political  Geography,  and  that  he  will  make  frequent  references  thereto  as 
occasion  demand's. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY,  3 

is  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east  once  every 
twenty-four  hours.  Besides  the  succession  of  day  and  night,  the  deflec- 
tion of  the  trade  winds  in  the  equatorial  region  results  from  this 
motion.  The  annual  motion  is  the  revolution  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit 
once  in  365 }4  days.  The  orbit,  or  ecliptic  as  it  is  also  called,  is  the 
path  in  which  the  earth  moves  in  its  journey  around  the  sun. 

As  the  earth's  axis  does  not  change  the  direction  of  its  inclination, 
the  earth  in  its  annual  revolution  must  present  itself  in  different  posi- 
tions toward  the  sun  as  it  reaches  different  parts  of  its  orbit,  and  thus 
receives  the  sun's  rays  directly  and  more  or  less  obliquely  on  different 
parts  of  the  surface  at  different  times  during  the  year.  This  produces 
not  only  the  change  of  the  seasons,  but  it  also  causes  the  regions  of 
calms  and  of  heavy  daily  rains  in  the  tropical  belt  to  move  north  and 
south  with  the  sun. 

The  earth  is  entirely  surrounded  by  an  envelope  of  gases  called 
the  atmosphere,  or  air.  When  the  atmosphere  moves  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  we  feel  it  in  motion  and  speak  of  it  as  the  wind;  but 
when  the  air  is  warmed  by  the  sun's  heat,  like  everything  else  in  nature 
it  expands,  becomes  less  heavy,  bulk  for  bulk,  and  therefore  rises 
directly  from  the  earth's  surface.  This  upward  motion  is  not  felt  and 
we  have  calms.  It  is  thus  readily  seen  that  the  region  of  calms  will 
be  at  or  near  that  part  of  the  earth's  surface  receiving  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

The  air  is  an  actual  substance  and  has  weight.  The  height  of  the 
air,  at  the  bottom  of  which  we  live,  has  been  estimated  at  from  one 
hundred  to  two  hundred  miles.  The  air,  like  all  other  gases,  is  elastic, 
and  because  of  its  weight  the  lower  layers  are  denser  than  those  above 
them.  The  weight  of  the  air  resting  on  any  specified  surface  produces 
atmospheric  pressure ;  this  at  the  sea  level  is  about  fifteen  pounds  to 
a  square  inch,  or  a  ton  per  square  foot;  but  the  density  of  the  air  is 
continually  changing,  owing  to  heat  and  moisture,  so  that  the  weight 
or  pressure  constantly  varies.  The  pressure  of  the  air  is  measured  by 
an  instrument  called  a  barometer.  (Fig.  2.)  The  simplest  form  con- 
sists of  a  glass  tube  over  thirty  inches  long,  sealed  at  one  end  and 
then  filled  with  mercury.  The  tube  is  inverted  with  the  open  end 
dipping  into  a  cup  of  mercury,  and  the  column  sinks  in  the  tube 


4  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

leaving:  a  vacuum  at  the  top  till  the  pressure  or  weig-ht  of  the  atmos- 
phere equals  the  weig-ht  of  the  mercury  in  the  tube.  A  graduated  scale 
for  determining  the  height  of  the  column  is  attached.  At  the  sea  level 
the  column  is  thirty  inches  long  and  weighs  at  the  rate  of  fifteen 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  base.  When  the  air  is  cold  and  dry  it  is 
denser  and  heavier  and  the  mercury  stands  higher  in  the  tube  ;  when  the 
air  is  warm  and  dry  it  expands,  becomes  less  dense  and  therefore  lighter 
and  the  mercury  is  lower ;  and  when  it  is  moist  and  warm  the  air  is  the 
lightest  and  the  barometer  is  the  lowest.  Consequently  when 
the  barometer  falls  rapidly  it  indicates  that  the  air  has 
rapidly  changed  to  a  less  dense  state,  is  lighter  and  is  rising- 
from  the  surface.  To  supply  its  place  the  cooler,  heavier  air 
must  rush  in  and  a  high  wind  results.  Thus  the  barometer 
enables  the  mariner,  the  farmer,  and  all  others  to  foresee 
the  coming  storm  hours  in  advance  to  the  great  saving  of 
property  and  often  of  life  itself.  The  barometer  may  also  be 
used  to  determine  the  height  of  mountains,  the  air  becoming 
lighter  as  we  ascend — the  barometer  falls  one  inch  for  every 
one  thousand  feet  of  ascent. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  at  any  particular  place  depends 
upon — (a.)  The  inclination  of  the  sun's  rays.  The  nearer 
vertical  the  rays  are  the  greater  the  heat,  hence  the  intense 
heat  of  the  tropical  regions,  (b.)  The  length  of  the  day  or 
the  time  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon.  The  hottest  region  is 
not  at  the  equator,  where  the  days  are  twelve  hours  long,  but 
FIG.  2.  ^^  some  point  north  or  south  where  the  days  are  still  longer. 
In  latitudes  where  the  days  and  nights  are  very  unequal  in 
length,  the  land  is  subject  to  great  changes  of  temperature. 

(c.)  The  elevation  above  the  sea  level.  Highlands  and  mountain 
summits  have  low  temperatures.  There  is  a  fall  of  one  degree  Fahren- 
heit for  every  333  feet  of  ascent — at  least  up  to  an  elevation  of  5280 
feet.  The  actual  distribution  of  temperature  throughout  the  earth  has 
been  obtained  from  thermometric  observations. 

Lines  drawn  around  the  globe  connecting  all  places  which  have 
the  same  temperature  throughout  the  year  or  any  part  of  the  year  are 
called  Isotherms.     These  lines  do  not  correspond  with  the  parallels  of 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY.  5 

latitude.  The  first  map  (Fig.  3)  shows  those  places  having  the  same 
averag-e  temperature  in  January,  the  second  (Fig.  4)  in  July.  In  the 
first  map  it  will  be  seen  that  New  York,  40°  north,  and  Iceland,  62° 
north,  both  have  an  average  of  32°  Fahrenheit,  while  Lisbon,  which 
is  also  40°  north,  has  a  temperature  of  50°  Fahrenheit. 

The  hottest  region  of  the  globe  is  the  equatorial,  the  coldest  the 
polar.  As  the  air  is  hottest  near  the  equator  it  is  ever  expanding  and 
rising  and  flowing  toward  the  poles,  and  the  cold  air  from  the  poles  is 


FIG  3. 


constantly  flowing  toward  the  equator  to  supply  its  place.  If  the  earth 
were  fixed,  the  winds  would  always  blow  directly  north  and  south,  but 
as  the  earth  moves  from  west  to  east  and  more  rapidly  at  the  equator 
than  at  thirty  degrees  of  latitude,  the  winds  coming  from  the  north 
become  northeast  winds  and  those  coming  from  the  south  become  south- 
east winds.  Winds  may  be  classed  as  permanent,  periodic  and  irregular. 
The  permanent  winds  are  the  Trades,  the  Doldrums,  and  the' Wester- 
lies.    The  Trade  Winds  are  the  most  constant  winds  on  the  globe  and 


6  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

are  known  as  the  Northeast  and  Southeast  Trades.  They  blow  in 
the  same  direction  all  the  year  round  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 
The  region  of  Trades  begins  about  28°  north  and  south  latitude  and 
they  blow  toward  the  equator. 

The  Doldrums,  or  zone  of  calms,  lies  between  3°  and  10°  north 
latitude.  The  larger  oceans  in  the  southern  hemisphere  make  the 
southeast  Trades  stronger  than  the  northeast  and  this  pushes  the  region 
of  calms  north  of  the  equator.     The  Doldrums  alter,  their  place  as  the 


sun  moves  north  or  south  and  have  a  perpetual  downpour  of  rain 
which  is  accompanied  by  terrible  thunder  storms. 

The  Westerlies  are  found  north  or  south  of  thirty  degrees  latitude. 
North  of  the  equator  the  prevalent  wind  is  the  warm  southwest ;  south 
of  the  equator  it  is  the  warm  northwest.  These  Westerlies  blow  on 
an  average  of  two  out  of  every  thr^e  days  during  the  year. 

Periodic  Winds :  The  chief  periodic  winds  are  the  Monsoons,  the 
best  examples  of  which  are  found  in  the  Indian  ocean.     The  air  over 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY.  7 

the  immense  plateaus  of  Asia  becomes  greatly  heated  and  rarefied  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  deflects  the  northwest  Trades  from  the  Indian 
ocean,  producing  the  southwest  Monsoon  which  blows  from  May  to 
September.  The  northwest  Monsoon,  which  is  properly  the  usual  trade 
wind,  blows  from  October  to  April. 

Land  and  Sea  Breeze:  During  the  day  in  tropical  climates  the 
shores  of  continents  and  islands  become  much  warmer  than  the  sea. 
This  causes  an  ascending  current  of  air  over  the  land,  and  a  sea  breeze 


FIG.   5. 


results.  During  the  night  the  shores  cool  more  rapidly  than  the  sea 
and  a  land  breeze  springs  up.  The  change  is  gradual — a  calm  inter- 
venes between  the  two  breezes. 

Irregular  Winds :  To  this  class  belong  winds  having  local  names, 
such  as  the  Sirocco  in  Italy  and  the  Solano  in  Spain,  which  are  caused 
by  the  hot  winds  from  the  Sahara  blowing  upon  these  countries.  In  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  United  States  there  is  a  similar  wind  known 
as  the  Chinook  which,  when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground,  sometimes  melts 


1 


8  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

it  in  a  few  hours  and  leaves  a  dry  surface.  The  Klhamsin  (meaning 
fifty)  is  a  sand  wind  in  Egypt,  so  called  because  it  blows  for  fifty  days. 
In  Syria  a  similar  wind  is  called  a  Simoon. 

Moisture  of  the  Air :  An  invisible  vapor  is  constantly  rising  from 
all  masses  of  water  and  other  wet  surfaces.  It  is  diffused  through  the 
air  and  is  carried  over  the  globe  by  winds.  The  large  water  surface  of 
the  earth  assures  a  constant  supply  of  water  vapor  for  the  atmosphere. 
Humidity  is  the  state  of  the  air  with  respect  to  the  vapor  it  holds.  Tt 
is  said  to  be  high  or  low  as  the  air  is  damp  or  dry.  The  capacity  of 
the  air  for  vapor  varies  directly  with  its  temperature.  Air  which  is 
saturated  with  moisture  is  said  to  be  at  the  dew  point.  On  cooling 
below  the  temperature  of  the  dew  point  precipitation  occurs — the  vapor 
becoming  visible  in  the  form  of  dew  or  rain,  while  below  32°  Fahr. 
frost,  snow,  or  hail  appears. 

There  is  a  greater  rainfall  over  land  than  at  sea.  More  rain  falls 
in  mountainous  regions  than  in  level  areas.  Mountain  chains  act  as 
condensers  of  vapor,  driving  the  warm  moisture-bearing  winds  high 
up  into  colder  strata  of  air.  The  greatest  amount  of  rain  falls  in  the 
belt  of  equatorial  calms ;  this  is  called  the  zone  of  constant  precipita- 
tion. Within  the  tropics  all  the  rain  of  the  year  falls  in  the  summer 
months,  when  the  sun  is  at  the  zenith.  In  this  region  at  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day  there  is  generally  a  heavy  rain  accompanied  by  terrific 
storms  of  thunder  and  lightning.  The  quantity  decreases  but  the  num- 
ber of  rainy  days  increases  as  we  pass  from  the  equator  to  the  poles. 
There  is  a  rainless  belt  in  the  eastern  hemisphere  north  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  In  this  region  are  the  deserts  of  Sahara,  Arabia,  Northern 
India,  and  Gobi.  The  barrenness  of  this  belt  is  due  to  the  dry  trade 
winds  blowing  over  the  greater  part  of  it. 

The  character  of  a  country  depends  largely  on  the  amount  of  rain 
it  receives.  The  most  favorable  rainfall  is  40  to  80  inches ;  this  occurs 
in  eastern  America  and  western  Europe.  In  desert  regions  the  rainfall 
is  less  than  12  inches,  while  irrigation  is  required  in  countries  receiving 
less  than  18  inches  of  rain  per  year.  On  the  other  hand,  in  some  parts 
of  the  tropical  regions  vegetation  is  so  luxuriant  as  to  make  agricul- 
ture impossible,  the  annual  rainfall  being  100  inches. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY.  9 

Climatic  Regions: 

The  number  and  variety  of  plants  found  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  world  are  dependent  on  several  causes,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  soil  and  climate.  Soil  depends  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  rocks  deposited  by  glaciers  in  the  past  and  also  the  nature 
of  the  rocks  at  present  in  the  locality.  These  are  mixed  up  with  organic 
matter  which  comes  from  decayed  animal  or  vegetable  substances. 
Climate,  which  includes  heat  and  moisture,  depends  not  only  upon  the 
latitude,  but  also  upon  elevation  above  the  sea,  nearness  to  the  ocean, 
direction  of  winds,  location  of  mountain  chains  with  reference  to  pre- 
vailing winds,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  warmer  and  moister  a 
climate  is,  the  more  numerous  and  varied  are  the  plants  which  it  sup- 
ports. It  is  the  amount  of  heat  prevailing  during  the  growing  and 
ripening  period  that  is  most  important,  and  not  the  average  annual 
temperature. 

The  division  of  the  earth  mathematically  into  Frigid,  Temper- 
ate, and  Torrid  zones  is  too  loose  to  be  of  much  use.  The  lands  north 
of  the  equator  are  generally  divided  into  six  plant  zones. 

The  tropical  zone  stretches  from  o°  to  23°.  This  is  the  region  of 
palms  and  bananas,  and  the  chief  products  are  rice,  coffee,  sugar,  cocoa, 
spices,  jute,  hemp,  coir  and  india-rubber.  In  this  region  are  found  the 
Selvas  of  the  Amazon. 

The  sub-tropical  region  extends  from  23°  to  34°  north  and  south. 
It  is  the  region  of  myrtles  and  laurels.  The  chief  products  are  cotton, 
tea,  tobacco,  opium,  dates,  oranges,  and  lemons. 

The  warm  temperate  zone  extends  from  34°  to  45°.  It  is  the 
region  of  evergreens  like  olives  and  oleanders.  The  chief  products  are 
maize,  wheat,  silk,  beets,  olives,  figs,  oranges,  lemons,  nuts,  and  wine. 

The  cool  temperate  zone  extends  from  45°  to  58°.  It  is  the  region 
of  deciduous  trees,  such  as  beeches,  oaks,  limes,  and  elms.  The  chief 
products  are  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  beans,  potatoes,  apples,  pears, 
wine,  and  hops. 

The  sub-arctic  zone  extends  from  67°  to  90°.  It  is  the  region  of 
Alpine  shrubs.  As  the  thermometer  falls  one  degree  for  every  three 
hundred  feet  we  ascend,  the  same  zones  may  be  found  one  above  the 


10  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY, 

Other  where  the  land  rises  to  great  heig^hts  within  the  tropics.  In  the 
Andes  and  Himalayas  as  we  ascend  we  find  the  same  succession  of 
plants  as  from  the  equator  to  the  pole. 

Animal  Life. 

Animals  are  affected  by  climate,  but  as  they  can  move 
about  they  are  not  so  immediately  dependent  upon  it  as  plants. 
In  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth  are  found  the  larger  animals  like  the 
elephant  and  giraffe,  the  most  powerful  beasts  of  prey  like  the  lion  and 
tiger,  the  most  highly  colored  birds,  and  the  most  poisonous  serpents. 

Fur-bearing  animals  are  found  in  the  arctic  regions.  Cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  horses  are  the  most  useful  animals  to  man  either  for 
food  or  service  and  are  found  in  the  largest  numbers  in  the  temperate 
zone. 

The  progress  of  man  has  been  largely  dependent  on  the  geographi- 
cal and  physical  conditions  surrounding  him.  His  ability  to  move  from 
place  to  place  and  his  inventive  genius  have  enabled  him  to  overcome 
many  of  the  drawbacks  to  his  advancement  arising  from  his  surround- 
ings. The  earlier  forms  of  industries  among  men  were  probably 
hunting  and  fishing.  These  are  still  the  only  ones  carried  on  to  any 
great  extent  in  the  Tundras,  or  frozen  deserts  of  northern  Siberia.  In 
many  other  parts  of- the  earth  they  constitute  the  principal  occupation 
of  a  part  of  the  community.  In  Siberia  and  Canada  many  are  engaged 
in  hunting  fur-bearing  animals,  and  game  is  hunted  for  pleasure  or 
profit  in  many  other  places.  Fishing  forms  the  principal  occupation 
of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  in  Europe  and  America  at  the 
present  time.  Hunting  and  fishing  communities  subsist  by  destroying 
the  supplies  of  nature,  but  once  they  begin  to  raise  domestic  animals 
or  to  till  the  soil  they  become  producers  of  wealth.  Pastoral  life,  or 
the  raising  of  domestic  animals,  develops  in  the  regions  where  the 
supply  of  grass  is  abundant.  The  herdsman's  life  ranks  higher  than 
the  hunter's.  Flocks  and  herds  produce  young  and  thus  increase  the 
wealth  of  the  owner.  He  is  compelled  to  wander  from  place  to  place 
for  new  pastures,  but  the  accumulation  of  tents,  rugs,  raiment,  and 
flocks,  all  give  him  the  idea  of  property.     These  generally  belong  to 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOG 


the  head  of  the  family.  The  herdsman's  Hfe  is  less  precarious  than  that 
of  the  hunter,  but  droughts  and  plagues  sometimes  destroy  his  herds. 
Herdsmen  are  found  in  the  steppes  of  Asia,  the  savannas  of  Central 
Africa,  and  the  South  African  steppes.  Many  Europeans  follow  this 
life  on  the  plains  of  North  and  South  America,  but  in  a  more  scientific 
manner. 

Agriculture  is  the  tilling  and  working  of  the  soil,  and  does  not 
exist  to  any  great  extent  except  in  settled  communities.  It  is  most 
easily  carried  on  in  tropical  lands ;  the  simplest  form  is  when  all  that 
is  necessary  to  do  is  to  plant  a  cutting  in  the  ground  and  to  return  for 
the  crop  in  six  months  as  is  done  in  parts  of  Africa  and  South  America. 
Once  seeds  like  rice,  maize,  and  millet  are  planted,  a  decided  advance  is 
made.  In  temperate  climates  agriculture  is  carried  on  in  the  clearings 
of  forest  lands  and  on  some  of  the  steppe  lands.  Here  the  idea  of 
property  and  a  fixed  home  is  more  fully  developed  and  the  various 
needs  of  an  agricultural  community  bring  about  a  division  of  labor, 
the  merchant  and  the  trader  are  found  useful,  and  villages  and  towns 
are  formed. 

The  difficulties  arising  from  the  pursuit  of  agriculture  in  temperate 
climates  have  developed  in  the  people  inhabiting  them  characteristics 
which  have  made  them  the  strongest  and  most  virile  nations  in  the 
world.  The  lowest  stage  of  an  agricultural  country  is  that  in  which  it 
produces  and  exports  agricultural  products  only.  This  is  the  case  in 
the  Congo  Free  State,  in  northern  Brazil,  and  in  some  of  our  southern 
and  western  states.  The  highest  stage  is  where  the  manufacturing 
industries  are  able  not  only  to  supply  in  many  lines  the  wants  of  their 
own  people  but  also  to  export  large  quantities  of  manufactured  goods 
to  other  countries.  This  is  the  condition  of  England,  Germany,  France 
and  some  other  countries  of  Europe,  and  also  that  of  the  United 
States. 

No  country,  not  even  the  most  highly  developed,  manufactures  all 
that  is  necessary  to  supply  its  demands.  We  find  cotton  goods  and 
iron  manufactures  in  the  list  of  imports  as  well  as  exports  of  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  the  United  States.  Many 
countries  of  Europe  have  increased  their  manufacturing  industries  to 
such  an  extent  that  more  than  one  half  of  their  exports  consist  of 


13 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


manufactured  goods,  and  a  large  percentage  of  their  imports  consists 
of  food  products  and  raw  materials. 


Y£Aff 

or  oot-LA  ffs 

50  00                          /OOOO                      /5O0O                      £0000 

-\ 

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/960 

1 

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£750 

IB50 

3800 

■ 

JB60 

7^00 

7870 

/0500 

/880 

/^500 

/690 

/6800 

/SOO 

a/000 

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YEAR 

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500O                      /OOOO                     tsooo                  £OdOO                         1 

FIG.   6.— PROGRESS   OF  THE  WORLD'S  COMMERCE.   1830  TO  1900. 

In  the  struggle  for  existence  man  has  arisen  through  the  hunting, 
fishing,  pastoral,  and  agricultural  stages  until  he  has  reached  that  of  a 
manufacturing  nation,  and  while  each  and  all  of  these  stages  may  be 
found  to  exist  to-day  in  most  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  still  those 
nations  which  have  highly  developed  manufactures  are  in  the  van  of 
progress. 

The  development  of  various  countries  into  distinct  manufacturing 
nations  has  been  the  result  of  causes  arising  in  the  last  century  and  a 
half.  Prior  to  1800  the  large  factories  and  manufacturing  plants,  which 
have  taken  the  place  of  home  labor  by  hand,  were  not  known.  These 
were  brought  into  existence  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  the  spin- 
ning jenny,  the  steam  engine,  and  other  mechanical  appliances.  In  this 
way  manufacturing  communities  produce  more  than  they  can  find  a 
market  for  in  their  own  locality,  and  they  are  compelled  to  seek  other 
markets.  Commerce  or  foreign  trade  as  it  exists  to-day  is  largely  the 
result  of  manufactures,  and  without  foreign  trade  most  of  the  nations 
of  the  world  would  find  it  impossible  to  maintain  their  present  state. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  no  foreign  trade 
such  as  we  now  have.  Each  nation  was  to  a  large  extent  self-dependent 
and  supplied  most  of  its  own  wants  in  the  way  of  food  and  clothing. 
Luxuries  constituted  the  most  important  part  of  the  imports  of  a  conn- 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY.  13 

try.  The  great  increase  in  foreign  trade  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  1870 
it  was  five  times,  and  in  1900  over  ten  times  as  much  as  in  1830.  The 
total  commerce  of  the  world  in  1900  is  estimated  at  about  twenty-one 
billions  of  dollars  in  value.  The  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  con- 
stitutes one  fifth,  and  that  with  the  United  States  and  Germany  each 
one  tenth  of  the  total  foreign  trade  of  the  world. 

The  chief  foreign  trade  of  the  great  commercial  nations  is  with 
each  other  and  not  with  outlying  communities.  The  efforts  of  the 
manufacturing  nations  of  the  world  to  secure  a  larger  share  of  the  trade 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America  are  evidences  that  we  are  about 
entering  a  new  era  of  international  trade  when  division  of  labor  will 
become  the  rule  among  the  nations  as  it  has  heretofore  been  the  rule 
among  communities  and  individuals.  The  United  States  with  its 
bountiful  supply  of  food  products  and  its  greater  production  of  coal, 
iron,  and  cotton  than  any  other  nation  of  the  world,  is  well  equipped 
to  secure  a  constantly  increasing  share  of  the  world's  trade. 

Further  development  will  produce  the  purely  commercial,  or  car- 
rying nation,  and  the  banking  nation.  Great  Britain  to-day  acts  in  the 
capacity  of  carrier  and  banker  for  most  of  the  trade  of  the  world,  and 
will  probably  continue  to  do  so  for  many  years  to  come. 

International  Date  Line. 

Every  place  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  moves  through  360°  in 
twenty-four  hours,  or  15°  in  one  hour.  New  York  is  75°  west  from 
London:  when  it  is  noon  in  London  it  is  seven  o'clock  A.  M.  in  New 
York.  The  man  who  lives  in  London  sees  the  sun  rise  earlier  than  the 
man  who  lives  in  New  York,  and  the  man  who  lives  in  New  York  sees 
the  sun  rise  earlier  than  the  man  who  lives  in  San  Francisco. 

If  any  one  travel  around  the  earth  from  east  to  west  he  will  gain 
a  day ;  if  another  travel  from  west  to  east  he  will  lose  a  day,  and  if  these 
travelers  meet  half  w^ay  round  there  will  be  a  day's  difference  in  their 
dates.  The  line  where  this  difference  of  time  is  adjusted  is  called  the 
International  Date  Line.  It  is  an  imaginary  line  extending  north  and 
south  through  the  Pacific  ocean  and  generally  conforming  to  the  i8oth 
meridian   of   east   and   west   longitude.     This    is   the   time  boundary 


14 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY, 


between  places  agreed  upon  by  those  who  come  from  the  east  and  those 
who  come  from  the  west.  When  it  is  the  first  day  of  the  month  east 
of  the  hne  it  is  the  last  day  of  the  preceding  month  west  of  the  line. 


100  r30  140  160  lao  160  140  130  ICO 


FIG.   7.— INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE. 


Standard  Time. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  constant  change  of  time  attendant  upon 
change  of  longitude  the  railroad  companies  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  have  agreed  to  make  a  change  of  one  hour  in  their  time  for 
every  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude,  giving  the  same  time  to  all  places 
within  these  limits.  This  is  called  Standard  Time.  By  this  system 
the  United  States  and  Canada  are  divided  into  five  sections  or  time 
belts,  the  Intercolonial,  the  Eastern,  the  Central,  the  Mountain,  and  the 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


15 


Pacific.  Each  of  these  is  fifteen  degrees  wide,  that  is,  it  extends 
through  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude,  seven  and  one  half  of  which  is 
east  and  seven  and  one  half  of  which  is  west  of  the  meridian  adopted 
as  the  central  line.  The  central  lines,  beginning  with  the  Intercolonial, 
are  60°,  75°,    90°,  105°,  and     120°  west  longitude. 


.10 

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FIG.   8. 


A  Pittsburg.  B  Wheeling,  i  Buffalo.  2  Kenova.  3  W.  Clifton  Forge.  4  Bristol,  s  Salis- 
bury. 6  Asheville.  7  Atlanta.  8  Charleston,  g  Long  Pine.  10  Alliance.  11  North  Platte 
12  Holyoke.  13  Phillipsburg.  14  Oakley.  15  Hosington.  16  Hope.  17  Huntington.  iSOgden 
19  Mojave.    20  El  Paso. 


The  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  organized  more  than  thirty 
years  ago  under  the  War  Department  and  re-organized  in  1891  as  a 
bureau  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  for  its  object  the  pre- 
paration and  distribution  of  daily  weather  forecasts.  (In  addition  to 
the  regular  daily  forecasts  special  warnings  are  given  for: 

High  winds,  dangerous  to  navigation. 


16 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Cold  waves  and  killing  frosts,  dangerous  to  growing  crops. 

Excessive  rainfall  and  conditions  likely  to  produce  floods  along 
the  river  basins.) 

Reports  of  weather  conditions  in  all  parts  of  the  country  from 
3100  observers,  paid  and  voluntary,  who  send  to  Washington,  twice 
a  day,  telegraphic  reports  of  the  conditions  prevailing  where  they  are 
located.  As  this  information  is  secured  it  is  noted  and  a  map  con- 
structed showing  the  weather  prevailing  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 


FIG.   9.— WEATHER  MAP. 

(See  fig.  9).  vWhen  a  storm  is  once  formed  it  usually  traveis  m  an 
easterly  direction  at  a  rate  that  can  be  estimated  with  a  fair  degree  of 
accuracy.^  fft  is  thus  possible  to  foretell  with  a  reasonable  amount  of 
certainty,  thirty-six  hours  in  advance,  any  changes  in  the  weather 
which  may  be  expected.  /  These  reports  are  sent  from  Washington  by 
telegraph  to  the  various  stations  and  are  then  published  from  these 
points.  Following  the  report  a  map  is  mailed  for  the  section  of  the 
country  covered  by  the  report. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY.  17 

I  tn  addition  to  the  printed  reports  which  are  sent  to  newspapers 
and  pubUc  places,  the  forecasts  are  indicated  by  a  series  of  flag^s  dis- 
played in  a  prominent  place. ^  (Fair  weather  is  foretold  by  a  square 
white  flag-,}f^ain  by  a  square  blue  flag-j  (changfe  in  temperature  by  a 
white  triang-ular  fla§:)-above  the  square  flag-  for  higher,  and  below  it 
for  lower  temperature.  Storms  are  indicated  by  a  red  flag  with  a 
black  centre;  the  direction  of  the  winds  by  pennants — white  for 
westerly  and  red  for  easterly  winds, — north  winds  when  over  the 
other,  south  winds  when  under.     (See  fig.  lo.) 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  WEATHER  BUREAU. 

Explanation  of  Flag  Signals. 
No.  1.  No.  2.  No.  3.  No.  4.  No.  5. 

Fair  W«ath«r.         Rain  or  Snow.  or  snow  Temperature.  Cold  Wavs. , 

FIG.  10. 

Interpretation  of  Displays. 

No.  I,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  stationary  temperature. 
No.  2,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 
No.  3,  alone,  indicates  local  rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 
No.  I,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  warmer. 
No.  I,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  colder. 
No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  warmer. 
No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  colder. 
No.  3,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  local  rain  or  snow,  warmer. 
No.  3,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  local  rain  or  snow,  colder. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 
COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

I  Commerce  is  dependent  on  the  fact  that  no  civiHzed  community- 
produces  or  can  produce  all  the  various  commodities  necessary  to 
satisfy  its  wantsN 

rCountries  and  communities  specially  adapted  to  agricultural  pur- 
suits produce  a  surplus  of  food  products  and  raw  materials,  and  there- 
fore engage  but  little  in  manufacture),  i  Other  countries  and  communi- 
ties possessing  superior  facilities  for  manufacturing  naturally  make  this 
their  chief  occupation  and,  therefore,  find  it  necessary,  or  more  profit- 
able, to  purchase  raw  materials  and  food  products  from  other  places.^ 
In  this  way  the  transfer  or  interchange  of  productions  arises  between 
different  places,  and  this  is  commerce. 

pommerce,  then, (is  the  exchange  of  surplus  products  of  one  com- 
munity for  those  of  anothe^.  (^VVhen  the  exchange  of  goods  takes  place 
between  different  parts  of  the  same  country,  it  is  known  as  domestic 
commerce  or  home  trade.  /  In  the  United  States  the  trade  between  the 
different  states  is  sometimes  called  inter-state  commerce^  Colonial 
commerce  is  the  trade  between  a  country  and  its  colonies.  ^  Foreign 
commerce  or  foreign  trade  is  the  exchange  of  goods  between  different 
nations.  Domestic  commerce  is  the  most  important  in  the  United 
States.  Colonial  commerce  is  more  important  in  the  United  Kingdom 
and  Holland  than  in  any  other  country. 

Every  civilized  country  finds  it  necessary  to  purchase,  bring  in, 
import  from  other  countries  a  portion  of  the  food  products,  raw 
materials,  or  manufactured  products  required  to  supply  its  wants ;  and 
similarly  a  portion  of  the  products  of  its  industries  must  be  sold,  sent 


COMMERCIAL   PRODUCTS. 


9 
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out,  exported  to  other  countries  to  supply  their  wants,  uhe  foreign 
commerce  of  a  country  thus  separates  into  two  branches,  its  imports 
and  its  exports?^  Exports  are  goods  sent  out  of  a  country.)  Imports 
are  ^oods  brought  in,  or  received  from  another  country.)  Foreign 
commerce  is  greatest  in  manufacturing  countries  Hke  the  United 
Kingdom,  Germany,  the  United  States  and  France. 

Commercial  Geography  treats  of  the  exchange  of  commodities 
between  different  countries  or  parts  of  countries  and  the  conditions 
affecting  their  production,  consumption,  and  transportation. 

All  articles  of  commerce  are  either 
natural  products  or  manufactured  products. 
(Natural  products  are  those  which  are  still 
in  their  natural  form  or  those  which  have 
had  very  little  change  made  in  them  as  the 
result  of  the  labor  of  man.^  Manufactured 
products  are  those  which  have  been  changed 
from  their  natural  conditiqn  by  more  or 
less  complicated  processes,  j 

It  is  impossible  in  thl^s  work  to  treat 
of  all  the  commodities  which  enter  into  the 
foreign  commerce  of  the  world;  generally 
those  are  considered  which  are  important 
to  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States. 
TUe  statistics  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  United  States 
furnish  us  with  the  best  guide  to  determine  which  these  are,  and  the 
classification  of  exports  adopted  by  the  United  States  government  is 
followed  in  this  book  as  the  most  convenient  not  only  for  the  order  of 
treatment,  but  also  for  ready  and  satisfactory  reference  to  the  reports 
and  other  documents  of  the  government.  We  shall  therefore  treat  this 
subject  under  the  following  heads: 

1st — The  products  of  Agriculture, 
2d — The  products  of  Forests, 
3d — The  products  of  Fisheries, 
4th — The  products  of  Mines, 
5th — The  products  of  Manufactures. 
The  first  four  are  all  included  under  the  head  of  Natural  Products. 


FIG.  11.— AGRICULTURAL  IMPORTS 
AND  EXPORTS.  1891  TO  1900. 
IN  HUNDREDS  OF  MILLIONS  OF 
DOLLARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 


WHEAT.  21 

THE   PRODUCTS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

The  products  of  agriculture  averaged  during  the  last  five  years 
about  sixty-six  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  total  exports  and  fifty-one 
per  cent  of  the  total  imports  of  the  United  States.     They  may  be 
divided  according  to  their  uses  into 
I.  Food  Products; 

II.  Raw  and  partly  manufactured  articles  for  use  in  manufactures 
and  other  purposes. 

These  may  again  be  sub-divided  into  (a)  those  of  vegetable  origin, 
(b)  those  of  animal  origin.  Seventy-two  per  cent  of  the  value  of  agri- 
cultural exports  is  of  vegetable  origin  and  twenty-eight  per  cent  is  of 
animal  origin,  and  about  the  same  percentages  of  agricultural 
imports  are  of  vegetable  and  animal  origin. 

FOOD    PRODUCTS  OF  VEGETABLE    ORIGIN. 

1  Cereals,  2  Fruits  and  Nuts,  3  Vegetables ,  4-  Minor  Farinaceous 
Foods,  5  Spices  and  Condiments^  6  Stimulants,  7  Narcotics,  8  Sugar 
Pla?its. 

jCereals  include,  (a)  Breadstuffs,  (b)  Other  cereals. 

Breadstuffs  as  given  in  the  United  States  statistics  average  about 
one  ^ fifth  of  the  total  exports  of  the  United  States,  and  include  (i) 
wheat  and  wheat  flour,  (2)  corn,  cornmeal,  (3)  oats,  oat-meal,  (4)  bar- 
l^y^  (5)  buckwheat,  (6)  rye,  (7)  prepared  forms  of  these  for  use  as 
table  food. 

WHEAT. 

(j'rom  a  commercial  standpoint  wheat  is  the  most  important  of  the 
cereals.  ]  It  is  known  to  have  been  cultivated  from  the  remotest 
antiquity,  for  we  read  of  it  under  the  name  of  corn  as  an  article  of 
commerce  in  Egypt  in  the  days  of  Joseph  and  in  Rome  in  the  days  of 
Caesar.  Wheat  was  unknown  in  America  at  the  time  of  its  discovery, 
but  now  the  United  States  alone  raises  over  one  fifth  of  the  world's 
crop.  The  last  fifty  years  have  been  marked  by  the  cultivation  of  wheat 
in  manv  places  formerly  occupied  by  hunters  and  herdsmen.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  the  prairies  of  the  western  states. 


23 


PRODUCTS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


h 


Light  clays  and  heavy  loams  are  the  best  soils  for  wheat,  but  for 
commercial  as  well  as  agricultural  success  climate  is  an  all  controlling 
condition.]  Wheat  is  normally  a  winter  annual.  In  climates  with  the 
winters  so  cold  that  all  vegetable  growth  is  suspended,  we  have  two 
distinct  classes  or  varieties  known  as  winter  and  spring  wheats. 

(^California,  Egypt,  Northern  Africa  and  similar  countries  rank  high 


in  the  production  of  this  cereal,]  while  the  sunny  climate  of  the  whole 


FIG.   1  2.— THE  WHEAT  AREA  OF  THE  WORLD. 


United  States  south  and  west  of  New  England  is  favorable  for  its 
growth. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  average  yield  of  wheat  in  bushels 
per  acre  in  the  different  countries  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table 
showing  the  yield  in  bushels  per  acre : 


Denmark    41.8 

England    29.1 

New  Zealand   25.5 

Norway    25.1 

Germany    23.2 

Belgium    21.5 


Holland    21.5 

France     19.4 

Hungary     18.6 

Roumania     18.5 

Austria    16.3 

Poland 16.2 


WHEAT. 


23 


Canada i5-5 

Argentina  i3-0 

Italy     12.1 

United  States    12.0 

Austrajfasia     lo.o 


India   9.2 

Russia     8.6 

Algeria    7.5 

South  Australia 7.0 


y-  h 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  Denmark  has  the  highest  yield 


j)er  agre  and  that  the  densely  populated  countries  in  the  northwest  of 


Europe  come  next.     This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  a 


systeni 


^  of  agriculture  that  has  been  undergoing  improvement  for  generations, 
in  which  the  use  of  fertilizers  and  intensive  culture  play  an  important 
part.  The  low  average  of  South  Australia  is  due  to  the  lack  of  rain- 
fall although  the  quality  of  the 
grain  is  h'gh  because  of  the  warm 
and  sunny  climate.  The  low 
average  of  Russia  is  due  to  the 
lack  of  deep  ploughing  and  the 
backward  state  of  civilization. 
While  the  average  in  the  United 
States  is  only  twelve  bushels  to 
an  acre,  in  a  number  of  states 
like  Maine,  Vermont,  Montana, 
Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  and 
Washington  it  is  over  twenty 
bushels  to  an  acre. 

Of  the  world's   wheat  crop 
of  1900  amounting  to  more  than    fig-   i3.-world's  total  production  of 

.  .      1^1   -ii-  c-i         1  wheat  IN  1899.   2  586  000  000  BUSHELS. 

two  and  one  halt  billions  of  bush-  „    ,  .,  t  or 

^--^.^.^^        Each  square  =  K  of  1%. 

els,  one  hah  was  grown  in  Europe  ^ 

and  about  one  fifth  in  the  United  States.  (In  Europe  the  largest  wheat 
producing  countries  are  Russia,  France,  Austria-Hungary,  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  the  United  Kingdom.^  Qn  the  United  States  wheat 
is  grown  in  every  state.  \  Each  of  the  following  states  produced  over 
twenty  million  bushels  irr  1900:  Kansas,  Minnesota,  California,  Wash- 
ington, Nebraska,  Texas,  Iowar~Pennsylvania,  and  South  Dakota. 
Outside  ot  Europe  and  the  United  States,  British  India,  Canada,  Ar- 
gentina, Australasia  and  Northern  Africa  are  the  largest  wheat  pro- 
ducers. 


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24  PROD  UCTS  OF  A  GRICUL  TURE. 

Wheat  is  the  most  sustaining  of  cereals  and  is  the  chief  food  grain 
of  the  Caucasian  race  which  consists  mainly  of  the  people  of  Europe, 
the  United  States,  British  America,  the  white  inhabitants  of  South 
America,  Africa  and  Australasia.  CWheat  is  also  beginning  to  be  used 
more  generally  in  such  rice-eating  countries  as  India,  China,  and  JapanJ 
Its  increased  use  is  due  to  the  quality  of  bread  made  from  the  flour ;  yet 
it  is  not  a  century  since  wheaten  bread  was  a  rarity  in  England,  and  it 
is  still  looked  upon  as  a  luxury  among  many  of  the  poorer  inhabitants 
of  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  rapid  extension  of  commerce  and  the 
increase  of  population  in  the  larger  manufacturing  centres  of  Europe 
have  resulted  in  an  increased  consumption  per  capita  and  a  decrease 
in  the  ability  to  supply  the  demand,  so  that  they  are  compelled  to  draw 
their  supplies  from  other  countries. 

Q'he  United  States  is  not  only  the  largest  producer  of  wheat  among 
the  nations  of  the  world  but  it  is  also  the  largest  exporter]  In  1900  one 
hundred  million  bushels  of  wheat  and  over  eighteen  and  one-half  mil- 
lion barrels  of  flour,  equivalent  to  eighty-three  million  bushels  of  wheat, 
were  exported,  the  total  value  being  $141  000  000.  Of  the  wheat 
exported  over  ninety  per  cent  went  to  Europe — the  United  Kingdom, 
Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  Germany  taking  the  largest  amounts.  \\\. 
will  be  seen  that  the  demand  is  largest  from  the  countries  in  the  north- 
west of  Europe,  and  that  this  demand  has  not  been  supplied  by  the 
United  States  alone,  i  The  wheat  fields  of  Russia,  the  Danubian 
countries,  Australia,  Argentina^J:^dik,  and  Egypt  have  been  brought 
into  connection  with  Londo^^iii^  Liverpool,  and  production  and 
exportation  have  largely  increaseciin  those  countries. 

fThe  tendency  in  the  United  States  has  been  to  export  as  much 
wheat  as  possible  in  the  form  of  flour,  since  this  has  the ^  advantage  of 
employing  our  millers  and  not  those  of  foreign  countries.  The  United 
States  produces  over  eight  million  tons  of  flour  annually  in  about  six- 
teen thousand  flour  mills.  ^Minneapolis  is  the  largest  flour  centre  in 
the  world.  Jfeungarian  flour  is  the  chief  competitor  in  the  European 
markets)  In  1880  the  United  States  exported  six  million,  and  in  igoo 
nearly  nineteen  million  barrels  oi  flour.  In  1900  two  thirds  of  this  was 
exported  to  European  countries,  the  United  Kingdom  alone  taking 
over  one  half.  While  the  countries  south  of  the  United  States  took  very 


WHEA  T. 


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FIG.   14.— EXPORTS  OF  WHEAT  AND 
WHEAT  FLOUR.   1891   TO  1900, 
IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

Wheat. 

Wheat  Flour. 


little  wheat,  they  imported  sixteen  per  cent  of  the  flour  exported  from 
the  United  States;  Brazil  alone  took  four  per  cent  and  the  West  Indies 
nine  per  cent.  Argentina  is  a  competitor 
in  both  wheat  and  flour  in  the  Brazilian 
market,  and  in  wheat  in  the  European  mar- 
kets. 

The  trade  in  wheat  on  the  Pacific  coast 
is  being:  revolutionized.  Heretofore  it  has 
been  sent  to  Europe  by  water  around  Cape 
Horn,  but  recently  there  has  developed  in 
Asiatic  countries  a  demand  for  flour. 
China,  Japan,  India,  and  Asiatic  Russia 
took  ten  per  cent  of  the  exports  of  flour 
from  the  United  States  in  1900,  sending:  in 
return  cargoes  of  tea,  silk,  and  mattings, 
some  of  which  reach  New  York  by    rail 

from  the  Pacific  coast  instead  of  coming  direct  to  New  York  by  water. 
As  this  demand  from  Asia  is  likely  to  increase,  the  Pacific  coast  farmers 
will  in  time  find  a  market  in  the  Orient  for  all  they  can  supply  without 
sending  any  to  Europe. 

Flour  is  shipped  in  barrels,  jute  bags,  cotton  sacks  and  paper  bags. 
Barrels  protect  the  flour  from  moisture,  but  in  the  export  trade  jute 
bags  are  beginning  to  take  their  place. 

(The  advantages  which  the  United  States  has  over  other  countries 
>in  the  production  of  wheat,  consist  in  cheapness  of  land,  in  being  well 
v  supplied  with  the  means  of  transportation  at  a  low  rate  both  by  rail 
and  by  water,  in  having  the  most  improved  methods  of  loading 
and  unloading  grain,  and  in  having  an  intelligent  farming  class, 
capable  of  making  use  of  the  latest  improvements  in  agricultural 
machinery  and  implements.J  The  peasants  of  India  make  use  of  primi- 
tive methods  of  agriculture  and  those  of  Russia  are  almost  as  backward. 
In  Argentina  and  Australia,  elevators  are  not  in  general  use  and  it  is 
but  seldom  that  the  grain  is  properly  stored  to  protect  it  even  from 
rain.  As  a  consequence  they  are  compielled  to  sell  at  once  regardless 
of  price. 


PRODUCTS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


In  the  United  States  as  facilities  for  transportation  have  improved 
the  wheat  centre  has  moved  westward.  There  has  been  a  large  decrease 
in  the  number  of  acres  devoted  to  wheat-raising  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  More  than  one  half  of  the  wheat  acreage  of  the  United  States 
at  present  is  in  the  Missouri  valley  including  the  states  of  Iowa,  Min- 
nesota, Missouri,  Kansas,  North  and  South  Dakota,  and  Oklahoma. 
The  demand  for  wheat  and  flour  is  growing  faster  than  its  production. 
In  the  past  new  wheat  fields  have  been  developed  to  supply  the  demand, 
but  the  increase  of  the  bread-eating  population  of  the  world  is  more 
rapid  than  that  of  the  wheat  areas,  and  it  is  believed  that  in  two  or 
three  decades  there  will  not  be  sufficient  wheat  to  supply  the  demand. 

MAIZE,  OR  INDIAN  CORN. 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn  is  the  most  important  cereal  grown  in  the 
United  States)and  in  the  fiscal  year  1900  exceeded  wheat  in  the  quantity 


FIG.   15.— REGIONS  OF  CORN  PRODUCTION. 

"and  value  of  its  export.  It  derived  its  name,  Indian  Corn,  from  the 
fact  that  the  Europeans  found  the  Indian  cultivating  it  when  they  first 
arrived  in  America.  In  many  places  other  cereals  are  given  the  name 
of  corn ;  for  instance,  wheat  is  called  corn  in  England,  in  Scotland  oats, 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  rye,  and  in  some  other  countries  barley,  all 
are  known  by  this  name.      (The  climate  best  suited  for  maize  is  one 


MAIZE. 


27 


with  a  summer  four  and  one  half  to  seven  months  long,  without  frost, 
the  middle  portion  hot  both  day  and  night,  sunny  skies,  and  sufficient 
rain  to  supply  the  demand  of  a  rapidly  growing  and  luxuriant  crop  and 
falling  at  such  intervals  as  to  best  provide  sufficient  moisture  without 
ever  making  the  soil  actually  wet.^ 

(['he  average  yield  of  maize  m  the  entire  United  States  is  twenty- 
five  bushels  to  the  acre,  about  double  that  of  wheat.^  In  some  of  the 
states  the  average  yield  is  thirty  and  forty  bushels  per  acre.  The 
world's  crop  of  corn  in  igoo  amounted  to  over  two  and  three  fourths 
billion  bushels,  of  which  about  two  billion  bushels  were  grown  in  the 
United  States.  The  chief  maize-producing  countries  outside  of  the 
United  States  are  in  order  of  amount,  Mexico,  Austria-Hungary, 
Itah,  Argentina,  Russia,  Egypt,  France,  Roumania,  Servia,  Canada, 
Australasia,  Spain,  Portugal,  India,  and  Algeria. 

In  the  United  States  over 
eighty  million  acres  are  given 
up  to  maize,  or  corn,  a  territory 
greater  than  that  of  the  whole 
of  Great  Britain  and  more  than 
that  given  to  the  cultivation  of 
all  other  cereals.  (Corn  is  culti- 
vated in  every  state  of  the 
United  States!^  The  principal 
corn  states  are,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Indiana,  and  Ohio?)  The  first 
three  raised  over  two  hundred 
million  bushels  each  and  the 
next  four  over  one  hundred  mil- 
lion bushels  each  in  1900,  so  that 
their  combined  crops  amounted 
to  nearly  two  thirds   of  that  of 

the  whole  United  States.  Very  little  is  produced  in  the  New  England 
States  or  the  States  west  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian. 

vThe  consumption  of  corn  is  mainly  as  a  food  for  animals>  and 
especially  for  fattening  stock  for  market.]    The  bulk  of  the  crop  is  used 


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FIG.  16.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  PRODUCTION  OF  CORN 

IN  1  899,    2  733  000  000  BUSHELS. 

Each  square  —  }ioi^%. 


28  PRODUCTS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

for  the  latter  purpose.  The  farmer  in  this  way  is  able  to  turn  a  cheap 
crop  for  which  he  cannot  find  a  market,  into  one  for  which  there  is  a 
great  demand.  \  Corn  is  used  as  food  for  human  beings  mainly  in  the 
countries  producing  it?) /In  Mexico  they  make  a  flat  cake  called  the  tor- 
tilla which  is  eaten  warm.-^  Corn  products  are  also  largely  used  as  a 
food  in  Central  and  South  America!!  In  Italy  and  Roumania  it  is  made 
into  a  pudding  called  polenta,  and.  under  various  names  it  is  used  in 
other  countries  of  Southern  Europe,  and  is  almost  the  exclusive  food  of 
the  Egyptian  fellah.  In  the  United  States  it  is  an  important  food  crop 
and  in  the  form  of  sweet  corn,  corn  meal,  corn  flour,  and  hominy,  it  is 
used  to  make  a  great  variety  of  dishes.  Corn  bread  made  of  the  meal 
is  a  popular  diet  in  the  Southern  States.  Among  the  countries  of 
Northern  Europe  where  we  find  the  greatest  market  for  corn.  Great 
Britain  is  the  only  one  in  which  it  is  used  to  any  extent  as  a  food  for 
human  beings.  On  account  of  the  climate  of  Europe  corn  fails  to 
reach  its  full  maturity,  and  therefore  it  is  not  possible  to  develop  as 
high  a  food  value  in  the  grain  as  is  done  in  the  United  States.  This 
largely  accounts  for  their  failure  to  use  it  as  a  human  food.  While  it 
may  not  possess  as  much  nutritive  value  as  wheat,  it  is  much  superior 
in  this  respect  to  rye  and  barley  which  are  so  largely  used  in  continental 
Europe  as  a  food  for  man. 

/  The  principal  countries  exporting  corn  are  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Roumania,  Italy,  Russia,  Egypt,  and  Argentina,  and  like  wheat 
it  finds  its  market  largely  in  the  manufacturing  countries  of  north- 
western Europe.j  The  United  Kingdom  is  at  present  the  best  market 
for  corn  and  corn  products  from  the  United  States.  In  many  con- 
tinental countries  there  is  a  heavy  tariff  on  corn  and  corn  products 
which  prevents  their  introduction. 

The  total  value  of  exports  of  corn  from  the  United  States  in  1900 
was  $85  000  000,  of  which  90%  was  sent  to  Europe ;  the  United  King- 
dom, Germany,  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Belgium  and  F>ance  being 
the  principal  purchasers.  Of  the  corn  meal  exported  the  United 
Kingdom  bought  nearly  one  half. 

The  uses  of  corn  are  numerous  and  varied.  In  addition  to  food 
products,  starch,  glucose,  syrup,  and  corn  oil  are  also  made  from  corn. 
Besides  its  great  consumption  as  a  food  for  cattle,  large  quantities  of 


OATS. 


29 


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corn  are  used  in  the  distillation  of  corn  whiskey,  alcohol,  spirits,  and 
beer.  Cellulose  is  made  from  the  stalks,  and  a  substitute  for  rubber 
from  corn  oil.  At  the  Paris  Exposition  there  was  a  corn  kitchen  in 
which  this  cereal  was  prepared  in  various  forms  as  a  viand  and  distri- 
buted free  in  order  to  demonstrate  to  Europeans  its  suitability 
and  excellence  as  a  food  for  man  and  what  tasty  dishes  can  be 
made  from  it.  The  object  of  this  was  to  popularize  it  and  in  this 
way  increase  the  demand  for  corn  products  from  the  United  States. 
Millions  of  people  in  both  Europe  and 
the  Orient  desire  a  cheaper  food  contain- 
ing- a  sufBcient  quantity  of  nutritive  ele- 
ments to  support  life.  As  corn  meets 
these  requirements,  if  Europeans  can  only 
be  induced  to  use  it  as  a  food,  the  influ- 
ence upon  the  welfare  of  the  farmers  of^ 
the  United  States  will  be  very  great. 

The  corn  crop   of   the  United   States 
in     igoo    was    fifty  per     cent     more     in  '"'G- 
quantity    and     twenty    per    cent     greater 
in  value  than  all  the  other  cereals  grown 

in  the  United  States,  and  if  a  demand  were  created  for  it  the 
area  of  its  cultivation  would  be  greatly  increased.  While  the  export 
of  corn  is  only  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  crop,  it  is  steadily  increasing 
and,  as  soon  as  European  countries  which  are  dependent  on  us  for  their 
food  supplies  acquire  a  taste  for  it  and  use  it  in  the  place  of  the  m.ore 
expensive  grains,  it  is  destined  to  be  the  most  valuable  export  crop 
among  the  cereals. 

OATS. 

Oats,  the  next  most  important  cereal,  thrives  best  in  a  cooler  and 
moister  climate  than  wheat  requires ;  and  although  it  is  cultivated  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  many  parts  of  the  wheat  area,  it  is  grown  as  a 
leading  crop  in  the  region  to  the  north  of  that  area  as  well  as  in  its 
higher  altitudes. 

The  world's  crop  of  oats  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  cereal  of 
the  temperate  zone  and  amounts  to  about  three  billion  bushels  annually. 

Of   this   enormous   quantity   Europe   produces   about   two   thirds. 


17.— CORN  EXPORTS  FOR 
UNITED  STATES,  1  891  TO  1  900. 
IN  MILLIONS  OF  BUSHELS. 


30  PROD  UCTS  OF  A  GRICUL  TURK. 

Russia  alone  leading-  all  European  countries  with  about  twenty-eig-ht 
per  cent  of  the  world's  entire  crop  as  her  share.  Germany,  France, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  the  United  Kingdom  are  also  large  producers 
of  this  cereal.  In  the  countries  of  north-western  Europe  where  the 
climate  is  very  moist  by  reason  of  the  moisture-laden  winds  from  the 
Gulf  Stream  and  the  Ocean,  oats  is  the  largfest  of  all  their  crops. 

In  the  United  States  oats  appears  among  the  crops  in  every  state, 
and  in  the  aggregate  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion is  raised  in  this  country. 
In  1900  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wiscon- 
sin, Indiana,  New  York,  Minne- 
sota, Nebraska,  Kansas,  and 
Pennsylvania  were  the  largest 
oat-raising  states,  all  of  which 
excepting  Pennsylvaniaand  New 
York  are  located  in  the  north 
central  part  of  the  Mississippi 
valley  and  in  the  prairie  region. 
The  average  yield  in  the  United 
States  is  thirty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  Canada  and  Siber'a  also 
grow  large  crops  of  this  grain. 

Oats  is  used  as  a  food  for 

man  especially  in  Scotland  and 

Ireland  in  the  form  of  oatmeal 

porridge   and   oat   cake,   but   its 

principal  use  is  as  a  food  for  horses,  it  having  been  proved  to  be  the 

best  grain  for  that  purpose. 

The  value  of  the  oats  exported  from  the  United  States  in  1900 
was  $12  000000,  an  increase  over  1899  although  40%  less  than  in  1898. 
Practically  all  the  oatmeal  exported  is  sent  to  Europe. 


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FIG.  18.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  PRODUCTION  Oh  OATS 
IN  1899.  3  212  000  000   BUSHELS. 

Each  square  =  K  ot  i  % . 


BARLEY. 


Barley  is  by  some  considered  the  most  ancient  of  grains.  It  can 
be  cultivated  over  a  wider  range  of  latitude  than  any  other  cereal.  It  is 
occasionally  found  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and  may  also  be  found 


R  YE—B  UCK  WHEA  T.  3 1 

near  the  equator,  although  it  reaches  its  greatest  perfection  in  the 
temperate  zone.  It  is  used  as  a  food  to  some  extent,  but  its  principal 
use  is  to  make  beer  and  whisky.  For  this  reason  it  is  largely  grown  in 
England  and  Germany.  The  world's  crop  in  igoo  amounted  to 
about  nine  hundred  million  bushels  of  which  Europe  produced  nearly 
eighty  per  cent.  Russia,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  United  States, 
and  the  United  Kingdom  are  the  largest  producers.  The  principal  ex- 
porting country  is  Russia.  The  value  of  the  exports  of  barley  from  the 
United  States  in  1900  amounted  to  $11  000000  and  this  was  exported 
mainly  to  Europe,  the  United  Kingdom  taking  one  half  of  it.  Cali- 
fornia raised  more  barley  in  1900  than  any  other  state,  or  nearly  twenty 
five  per  cent  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States.  The  other  important 
barley  states  were  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Kansas  and  New  York. 

RYE. 

Rye  grows  where  it  is  too  cold  for  wdieat  and  often  on  soils  that 
will  raise  no  other  grain.  It  seems  to  thrive  best  in  poor  localities. 
Rye  is  the  chief  food  of  the  peasants  of  Germany,  Russia,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  total  production  of  this 
cereal  in  1900  was  nearly  one  and  a  half  billion  bushels.  About  ninety 
four  per  cent  of  the  whole  crop  is  grown  in  Europe,  and  of  this  Russia 
raises  more  than  fifty  per  cent  and  Germany  twenty  per  cent.  The 
United  States  produces  only  about  twenty-three  million  bushels  and 
exports  one  tenth  of  it,  principally  to  countries  of  northern  Europe. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

Buckwheat  produces  a  grain  that  is  very  nutritious  and  the  plant  is 
frequently  grown  to  be  plowed  under  in  order  to  improve  the  soil.  On 
the  continent  of  Europe  it  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  Russia  and  France. 
In  the  United  States,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  produce  two 
thirds  of  the  crop.  It  is  used  in  the  United  States  to  make  buckwheat 
cakes.    The  small  amount  exported  is  sent  to  the  continent  of  Europe. 

According  to  the  United  States  statistics.  Bread-stuffs  include  in 
addition  to  the  items  already  mentioned:  (i)  Bran,  the  outer  coat- 
ing of  wdieat,  which  is  used  as  a  food  for  cattle,  and  the  exports  of 


82  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

which  go  mainly  to  Europe,  (2)  Preparations  of  table  food  of  which 
more  than  one  half  is  sent  to  Great  Britain,  and  (3)  Bread  and  tiscuit 
exported  chiefly  to  the  West  Indies  and  countries  south  of  the  Uniced 
States.  Of  the  entire  amount  of  breadstuffs  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  1900,  eighty  per  cent  was  sold  to  Europe,  fifty  per  cent  being 
purchased  by  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  grain  of  the  west  is  brought  to  the  interior  shipping  points  of 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Duluth,  Minneapolis,  and  St.  Louis,  and  from 
these  points  it  is  forwarded  by  rail  or  water  to  New  York,  Baltimore, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Newport  News,  from  which  ports  it  is  sent 
in  ships  to  foreign  countries.  From  lake  ports  it  may  come  to  Buffalo 
and  by  way  of  the  Erie  Canal  to  New  York.  Large  quantities  of 
wheat  from  the  Pacific  coast  are  sent  around  Cape  Horn  to  Europe. 
New  Orleans  and  the  Gulf  ports  take  part  of  the  grain  of  the  south- 
west to  Europe  and  some  grain  goes  by  way  of  Welland  canal  to  Mon- 
treal and  thence  to  Europe,  a  new  style  of  vessel  called  the  whaleback 
being  used  largely  in  this  trade.  The  transportation  of  grain  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  elevators  or  granaries  used  for  the  storage  of  grain 
both  at  interior  and  seaboard  shipping  points.  They  are  usually  built 
by  the  side  of  railroads  and  on  wharves  or  docks  and  contain  great 
grain  bins  holding  thousands  of  bushels  of  wheat.  The  grain  is 
carried  to  the  top  of  the  elevator  by  small  scoops,  called  buckets, 
fastened  to  a  belt.  When  it  is  taken  out  it  is  run  through  pipes  to  cars 
or  ships  which  carry  it  to  other  markets.  The  lack  of  these  facilities  in 
other  grain-producing  countries  increases  the  cost  of  transportation, 
and  although  their  farm  labor  is  cheaper,  they  are  not  able  to  sell  their 
grain  at  a  profit  in  European  markets  for  less  than  the  price  asked 
for  American  grain. 

Other  Cereals: 

RICE. 

Rice  is  the  most  important  of  cereals  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
number  of  people  consuming  it,  the  area  devoted  to  its  cultivation,  and 
the  amount  annually  produced.  It  is  eaten  by  more  than  one  half  of  the 
human  race  and  forms  the  staple  food  of  more  than  one  third  of  them. 

It  requires  plenty  of  heat  and  moisture  and  is  well  suited  to  mon- 


RICE.  33 

soon  areas  and,the  deltas  of  rivers  where  it  is  possible  to  flood  the  nelds 
at  the  proper  time.  The  fields  are  carefully  levelled  and  intersected 
by  canals  and  trenches  by  which  the  water  can  be  introduced  or  drawn 
off.  The  growth  of  rice  is  very  rapid — sometimes  several  inches  in 
twenty-four  hours  when  under  water.  The  fields  must  be  kept  clear  of 
weeds,  which  is  very  difficult  when  they  are  flooded.  It  grows  from 
one  to  six  feet  high  and  is  cut  when  ripe  like  wheat  or  other  grain. 
After  being  threshed  and  winnowed,  it  is  called  "paddy"  or  ''rough 
rice."  This  is  the  rice  with  the  inner  covering  still  attached.  This 
inner  covering  is  generally  broken  off  by  machinery  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  paddy  are  exported  to  Europe  where,  by  their  improved 
machinery,  they  are  able  to  separate  this  more  cheaply  than  in  the 
countries  producing  it. 

Rice  is  cultivated  more  extensively  in  the  densely  populated  low- 
lands of  eastern  Asia.  We  find  it  in  China,  Japan,  India  (Bengal, 
Madras,  and  Burma),  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Farther  India;  in  the  Philip- 
pines, Hawaii,  and  other  Pacific  islands ;  in  Italy ;  in  Egypt  and  in  other 
parts  of  Africa ;  in  Mexico,  Brazil,  and  a  few  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  United  States.  China  is  probably  the  largest  rice-producing  coun- 
try in  the  world.  In  Bengal  the  annual  crop  is  about  fifty  billion 
pounds,  in  Japan  thirteen  billion,  in  Italy  one  billion,  and  in  the  United 
States  one  hundred  and  thirty  million. 

Rice  is  not  as  important  commercially  as  some  other  grains 
because  it  is  so  largely  consumed  in  the  countries  in  which  it  is  pro- 
duced. The  rice-exporting  countries  are  China  and  India  (Burma,  the 
least  densely  populated  of  all  of  the  rice-growing  countries,  being  a 
large  exporter  of  rice),  Japan,  Siam,  Straits  Settlements,  Hawaii, 
Egypt,  and  Italy.  The  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and  the  Nether- 
lands import  large  quantities  in  the  form  of  paddy,  and  then  export  it 
in  the  form  of  whole  rice,  broken  rice,  and  rice  meal  or  flour.  A  small 
amount  is  exported  from  the  United  States. 

In  the  United  States  rice  is  used  more  as  a  luxury  than  as  a  staple 
food.  About  one  half  of  the  rice  used  is  imported  and  the  balance  is 
raised  in  a  few  of  the  southern  states,  Louisiana  and  Texas  producing 
about  three  fourths  of  it.  Of  the  many  varieties,  that  from  South 
Carolina  and  from  Burma  is  considered  the  best. 


34  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Of  the  rice  imported  into  the  United  States,  China,  Japan,  Hawaii, 
and  Italy  furnish  sixty  per  cent,  and  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany, 
and  Netherlands  about  forty  per  cent.  This  last  is  an  example  of  a 
country  exporting  large  quantities  of  an  article  it  does  not  produce, 
some  of  it  in  the  very  form  in  which  it  came  from  the  country  of  origin. 

MILLET. 

The  millets  are  important  both  as  forage  plants  and  as  a  source 
of  food  for  man.  In  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  they  take  a  prominent 
place  among  forage  crops,  and  they  are  used  as  the  principal  food  of 
over  two  hundred  millions  of  people.  Millet  is  raised  on  between 
thirty-five  and  forty  million  acres  in  India.  Japan  alone  uses  about 
thirty-five  million  bushels  of  seed  each  year  for  human  food.  Corea, 
China,  and  other  Asiatic  countries  also  raise  enormous  quantities  for' 
this  purpose. 

Fruits  and  Nuts. 

The  fruits  are  one  of  the  important  vegetable  food  products 
entering  into  the  foreign  trade  of  different  countries.  Those  grown 
in  tropical  or  sub-tropical  climates  are  in  great  demand  in  Northern 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  The  value  of  the  fruits  imported 
into  the  United  States  is  about  twice  that  of  those  exported  from  it. 

Of  the  exports  apples  are  the  most  important.  Of  the  green,  or 
ripe,  apples  exported  in  1900  about  ninety  per  cent  was  sold  to  Europe, 
the  United  Kingdom  taking  seventy  per  cent.  But  few  of  the  numer- 
ous varieties  found  in  the  United  States  are  suitable  for  export.  Large 
quantities  of  apples  are  also  shipped  from  Canada,  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  Australia  to  the  United  Kingdom,  which,  although 
an  apple-growing  country,  is  not  able  to  supply  its  own  needs  in  this 
line.  Of  the  dried  apples  exported  from  the  United  States  ninety-five 
per  cent  are  sold  to  Europe,  Germany  importing  more  than  one  third 
of  them.  Evaporated  apples  are  most  in  demand  in  Europe.  These 
are  generally  prepared  by  the  Alden,  or  hot  blast,  process  which  has 
revolutionized  the  dried  fruit  industry  in  the  United  States.  Its  effect 
is  to  remove  the  water  from  the  fruit  rapidly  and  convert  a  portion  of 


FRUITS  AND  NUTS.  85 

their  starch  into  sugar  without  any  great  change  in  their  flavor  or 
appearance.  They  have  also  the  advantage  of  retaining  their  quaUty  for 
years.  Notwithstanding  attempted  discriminations  against  them  by 
foreign  governments,  the  wholesomeness  and  cheapness  of  American 
dried  apples  have  resulted  in  increasing  consumption  abroad. 

Prunes,  or  djjed.^hHPs,  are  largely  produced  in  Germany,  France,  / 
Spain,  and  Turkey,  but  the  importation  of  them  into  the  United  States 
has  decreased  owing  to  the  large  production  of  this  fruit  in  California, 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho.  The  production  of  prunes  in  these 
States  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  bulk  of  the  home  demand  and  to 
enable  the  United  States  to  export  over  $i  500  000  worth.  The 
Netherlands,  Germany,  United  Kingdom,  and  France  are  the  largest 
buyers. 

While  grapes  may  be  found  in  all  the  vine-growing  regions  from 
fifty  five  degrees  north  to  thirty  eight  degrees  south,  they  are  exported 
to  any  great  extent  only  from  those  parts  of  countries  which  do  not 
produce  a  grape  suitable  for  wine-making.  The  countries  exporting 
grapes  are  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France.  Those  imported  into  the 
United  States  come  mainly  from  Almeria,  a  province  in  Spain,  and 
are  a  meaty  grape  known  in  the  market  as  "Malaga"  grapes.  The 
large  grape-producing  regions  of  the  United  States  are  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  Missouri  and  California,  although  grapes  are  also  raised  for 
market  in  many  other  states. 

Raisins  are  dried  grapes,  and  they  are  an  article  of  export  princi- 
pally from  Spain  and  Asia  Minor,  whence  most  raisins  imported  into 
the  United  States  come.  The  United  States  formerly  imported  large 
quantities  of  raisins,  but  now  the  home  demand  is  almost  entirely 
supplied  by  the  raisin  grape  grown  in  California. 

Currants  are  the  small  seedless  raisins  of  Greece.  Their  importa- 
tion fell  off  greatly  in  1895  after  the  duty  was  imposed  on  them,  but 
it  is  now  nearly  as  great  as  it  was  prior  to  that  time.  The  currant 
vine  has  only  been  successfully  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth,  whence  its  name.  Greece  furnishes  those  imported 
into  the  United  States. 

Of  the  total  exports  of  fruit  from  the  United  States  in  1900, 
thirty  per  cent  was  canned,  and  about  two  thirds  of  these  canned 


86  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

fruits  were  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom.  About  twenty  five  per  cent 
of  the  exports  is  classed  under  the  head  of  ''all  other  green,  ripe  and 
dried  fruit."  These  are  sent  principally  to  Canada,  Northern  Europe, 
Australasia,  and  Africa,  and  consist  of  dried  and  fresh  apricots,  peaches, 
and  prunes,  and  fresh  peaches,  plums,  pears,  and  other  fruits  from 
California. 

Of  the  tropical  fruits  imported  the  most  important  is  the  banana. 
The  "banana  is  grown  in  most  of  the  tropical  countries  of  the  world. 
It  requires  practically  no  cultivation.  It  sends  up  new  stems  from  its 
root  stock  every  year,  which  grow  very  rapidly.  In  less  than  a  year 
the  young  trees  or  stems  are  loaded  with  fruit,  and,  after  bearing  their 
crop,  the  stems  die  off.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  plants, — the  same 
space  that  would  produce  thirty  pounds  of  wheat  or  one  hundred 
pounds  of  potatoes,  would  grow  four  thousand  pounds  of  bananas.  It 
has  twenty  five  times  more  nutritive  value  than  wheat  bread.  It  thus 
becomes  one  of  the  most  important  food  products  of  the  tropics. 

Bananas  intended  for  exportation  are  generally  gathered  green, 
but  they  acquire  the  golden  or  red  tint  which  marks  maturity  on  the 
vessel  or  after  their  arrival  at  the  place  of  destination.  Banana  flour 
and  evaporated  bananas  are  becoming  items  of  commerce  and  will 
overcome  the  difficulties  of  keeping  the  fruit  long  enough  to  reach 
northern  markets.  The  United  States  imported  nearly  $6000000 
worth  of  bananas  in  1900,  which  was  about  one  third  in  value  of  all  the 
fruit  imported.  The  West  Indies  and  the  Central  American  States  each 
furnished  about  forty  per  cent  and  Colombia  about  seventeen  per  cent 
of  those  imported  into  the  United  States.  Bananas  are  cultivated  to  a 
very  small  extent  in  Florida  and  California. 

The  citrus  fruits,  including  the  orange,  the  lemon,  the  lime,  and 
the  citron  after  which  they  are  named,  rank  next  in  importance  to  the 
bananas  among  the  imported  fruits  of  the  United  States. 

The  orange  (Citrus  aurantium)  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  about  the 
size  of  a  small  apple  tree,  which  has  white  flowers  and  bears  fruit 
about  six  months  after  blossoming.  It  is  found  in  the  countries  of 
southern  Asia,  southern  Europe,  northern  Africa,  Mexico,  West 
Indies  and  Brazil.  In  the  United  States  it  is  grown  in  the  Gulf  States 
and  in  California.    The  northern  states  of  Europe  receive  their  supplies 


FRUITS  AND  NUTS.  37 

from  Brazil,  Spain,  Italy  and  northern  Africa.  Of  those  imported 
into  the  United  States  twenty  per  cent  comes  from  Italy,  sixty  per 
cent  from  the  West  Indies.  Fine  oranges  are  raised  in  Florida  and 
California  and  a  large  part  of  the  demand  for  them  in  the  United 
States  is  supplied  by  these  two  states.  The  orange  trees  in  the  Gulf 
States  are  occasionally  so  much  injured  by  frost  as  to  destroy  nearly 
the  entire  crop. 

The  lemon  (Citrus  limonum)  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  like  the  orange. 
It  is  cultivated  around  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  West  Indies,  but 
the  Mediterranean  countries  are  the  principal  source  of  supply  for 
northern  Europe  and  the  United  States.  About  $4000000  worth  of 
lemons  are  imported  into  the  United  States  annually,  of  which  about 
ninety  five  per  cent  comes  from  Italy.  Lemon  juice  is  largely  exported 
from  Sicily.  Fifteen  hundred  lemons  yield  about  twenty  six  gallons 
of  raw  juice,  and  twenty  five  hundred  lemons  about  the  same  quan- 
tity of  concentrated  juice.  About  $100000  worth  of  lemon,  orange, 
and  lime  juice,  and  about  $25  000  worth  of  orange  peel  are  imported 
into  the  United  States.  There  is  a  regular  market  for  orange  peel  in 
Amsterdam  where  large  quantities  are  bought  and  sold. 

Limes  (Citrus  limetta)  are  raised  mainly  in  the  West  Indies  and 
are  valuable  for  the  juice  obtained  from  them. 

Citron  (Citrus  medica)  is  a  species  of  lemon  with  a  thick  rind 
which  furnishes  the  candied  peel  of  commerce.  Greece  and  Italy 
export  large  quantities. 

Dates  are  the  fruit  of  the  date  palm,  which  is  quite  a  tall  tree  and 
has  a  crown  of  forty  to  eighty  leaves.  It  is  found  in  northern  Africa, 
Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  Russia,  and  India.  The  fruit  is  used  largely  as 
a  food  by  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries,  but  it  enters  into  commerce 
as  a  dried  fruit.  The  United  States  imports  about  $400000  worth 
annually,  of  which  seventy  five  per  cent  is  purchased  from  the  United 
Kingdom  and  ten  per  cent  from  Asiatic  Turkey.  Those  imported 
from  the  United  Kingdom  come  originally  from  Asiatic  and  African 
countries.  The  choicer  kinds  come  loose  and  the  more  common  kinds 
come  pressed  into  a  cake  or  mass. 

Figs  are  cultivated  mainly  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean,    The  tree  is  sometimes  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  high,  but 


88  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

generally  it  is  only  a  shrub/^  Figs  are  now  grown  in  California  in 
large  quantities.  They  are  eaten  fresh  in  the  countries  of  origin,  but 
are  known  to  commerce  only  as  dried  fruits.  The  average  annual 
imports  into  the  United  States  amount  to  about  $500000  of  which 
seventy  six  per  cent  comes  from  Turkey  (chiefly  from  Smyrna)  and 
twenty  one  per  cent  from  the  United  Kingdom,  being  re-exports  of 
Asiatic  figs. 

Pineapples  are  cultivated  in  nearly  all  tropical  countries,  but  they 
are  exported  mainly  from  the  West  Indies.  They  are  cultivated  in 
Florida  and  in  California.  The  imports  into  the  United  States  from 
the  West  Indies  amount  to  about  $500  000  annually. 

Fruits  preserved  in  brandy  and  sugar  are  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  France,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  Spain.  Preserved  fruits 
form  an  important  item  in  the  trade  of  these  countries,  and  are  sent 
by  them  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Nuts  as  food  products  are  not  as  important  a  factor  of  commerce 
as  fruits.  They  are  however  of  great  value  and  form  a  large  part  of 
the  food  of  the  natives  in  countries  where  they  are  grown.  The  nuts 
of  the  world  would  sustain  more  than  twice  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  if  all  other  food  supplies  were  cut  off.  There  are  very  few  nuts 
exported  from  the  United  States  and  the  importation  of  nuts  is  not 
very  large. 

Almonds  are  grown  largely  in  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  They  look  something  like  a  peach  but  are  hard  and 
green  and  juiceless.  There  are  two  kinds,  the  sweet  almond  used  in 
confectionery  and  dessert  and  for  making  oil,  and  the  bitter  almond 
used  for  flavoring  by  the  confectioner  and  for  making  oil.  The  best 
of  the  sweet  almonds  are  the  Jordan,  imported  without  shells  from 
Malaga;  the  Valencia  are  imported  with  shells.  Almonds  are  also 
successfully  cultivated  in  California,  where  they  raise  about  two  thirds 
of  the  annual  consumption  of  the  United  States.  In  1900  about  six 
million  pounds  were  imported  of  which  about  one  half  came  from 
Spain,  one  fourth  from  Italy,  and  about  one  fifth  from  France. 

Cocoanuts  are  the  fruit  of  the  cocoanut  palm.  This  tree  grows 
to  a  height  of  more  than  one  hundred  feet  and  has  fifteen  or  twenty 


11    UNlVt-KOi  I  •     n 
VEGETABLES.  ^■■■"        "^^  39 

large  leaves  near  the  top  under  which  hang  the  bunches  of  nuts.  They 
form  the  staff  of  life  in  many  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans  where  they  are  native.  Those  imported  into  the  United  States 
are  mainly  from  the  West  Indies,  Central  America  and  Colombia. 
They  are  also  grown  in  Florida  and  California.  The  sale  of  the 
Florida  cocoanut  amounts  to  about  $300  000  annually,  or  about  one 
half  of  that  of  imported  cocoanuts. 

Chestnuts  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  people  of  southern 
Europe.  They  are  eaten  raw,  boiled,  roasted,  or  ground  into  meal  and 
made  into  pudding.  There  are  large  forests  of  chestnut  trees  in 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  nuts  are  large  and  sweeter  than  the 
ordinary  American  chestnut ;  the  finest  kinds  are  called  Marons. 
Large  quantities  of  chestnuts  are  exported  from  Spain,  Italy,  and 
France  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and  some  to  the  United  States. 

Brazilnuts  are  grown  chiefly  in  the  Brazilian  forests  and  exported 
mainly  from  Para.  The  nuts  are  enclosed  in  a  large  woody  capsule, 
from  twelve  to  twenty  growing  in  a  single  capsule.  The  United  States 
imports  about  $400  000  worth  annually  for  use  in  confectionery. 

About  $700  000  worth  of  filberts  and  walnuts  are  imported  mainly 
from  European  countries. 


Vegetables. 

Vegetables  are  of  much  importance  in  the  foreign  trade  of  Euro- 
pean countries,  but  they  do  not  enter  so  largely  into  that  of  the  United 
States.  The  total  United  States  trade  in  them  amounts  to  about 
$5  000  000  annually  and  is  about  equally  divided  between  imports  and 
exports. 

Common  Peas  are  generally  grown  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  tem- 
perate zones ;  the  exporting  countries  are  United  States,  Canada, 
Russia,  Netherlands,  and  Germany.  The  finest  canned  green  peas  are 
exported  from  France. 

Beans  are  grown  mainly  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate  zone 
and  are  exported  in  large  quantities  to  northern  Europe  from  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  sea.     The  United  Kingdom 


40  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

imports  annually  about  $7000000  worth  of  beans  and  peas  mainly 
from  European  countries. 

Chick  peas  are  an  important  article  of  food  and  trade  in  the  Medi- 
terranean countries  and  in  India.  They  form  one  of  the  chief  articles 
of  food  in  Spain,  and  large  quantities  are  exported  to  Spanish- Ameri- 
can countries.  When  roasted  they  are  said  to  sustain  life  longer  than 
almost  any  other  food  in  like  quantities.  For  this  reason  they  hold 
an  important  place  in  the  caravan  trade  of  north  Africa.  Their  great 
value  arises  from  the  fact  that  they  supply  nitrogenous  elements  of 
food  which  cannot  be  obtained  from  fruits  and  grains.  Soya-beans 
are  grown  and  consumed  almost  entirely  in  China  and  Japan. 

Mexican  beans,  or  frijole,  are  pinkish  brown  turning  to  chocolate 
color  when  cooked.  They  are  consumed  in  large  quantities  in  Mexico 
and  other  Latin-American  countries  and  enter  largely  into  the  trade. 

Potatoes  were  originally  from  America,  growing  wild  in  Chile. 
Their  name  is  a  misnomer;  it  was  given  to  them  because  of  their 
resemblance  to  the  sweet-potato  (Batata  convolvulus).  They  do 
not  belong  to  this  family,  but  to  that  of  the  nightshade  order  of 
plants  (Solanum  tuberosum).  Although  white  potatoes  are  of  Ameri- 
can origin  they  are  frequently  called  Irish  potatoes.  They  were  cul- 
tivated in  Ireland  earlier  than  in  any  other  European  country.  Prus- 
sian farmers  did  not  cultivate  them  until  they  were  compelled  to  do 
so  by  Frederic  II  of  Prussia,  but  Germany  is  today  the  largest  pro- 
ducer and  consumer  of  potatoes.  In  Ireland  potatoes  with  fish  con- 
stitute the  main  food  of  the  poorer  and  middle  classes. 

The  largest  potato  producing  countries  according  to  amount  are 
Germany,  Russia,  France,  Austria,  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United 
States.  In  the  United  States  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Ohio, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan  are  the  leading 
states  in  the  value  of  the  production  of  this  vegetable.  Ireland  and 
Germany  produce  and  consume  more  per  capita  than  any  other  coun- 
tries. All  the  continental  countries  of  northwestern  Europe  export 
potatoes,  Germany  and  France  leading.  The  Channel  Islands,  the 
Canaries,  and  Malta  furnish  the  early  potatoes  for  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  the  Bermudas  for  the  United  States. 


FARINACEOUS  FOODS.  41 

The  chief  value  of  the  potato  as  food  is  due  to  the  starch  and,  to 
a  less  extent,  to  its  potash  salts  also.  It  cannot  be  relied  on  alone  as  a 
food  sufficient  to  sustain  life.  Starch  and  sugar  are  manufactured 
from  potatoes,  and  in  Germany  and  in  northern  Frar  :e  large  quan- 
tities of  potatoes  are  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol. 

Early  Bermuda  onions  constitute  more  than  one  half  of  those 
imported  into  the  United  States. 

Pickles  and  sauces  come  mainly  from  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
prepared  or  preserved  vegetables  from  France. 

Canned  vegetables  exported  from  this  country  go  mainly  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  of  all  other  vegetables,  including  pickles  and 
sauces,  more  than  one  half  are  shipped  to  the  United  Kingdom  and 
Canada. 

11 

Minor  Farinaceous  Foods. 

The  minor  farinaceous  foods,  like  arrow-root,  tapioca,  and  sago, 
are  important  food  products  in  some  of  the  tropical  countries  and  are 
exported  from  them  in  large  quantities. 

The  arrow-root  plant  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  other 
tropical  countries  of  America.  It  has  tuberous  roots  which  are  grated 
and  after  repeated  washing  dried  in  the  sun;  this  makes  the  arrow- 
root of  commerce  which  is  used  as  a  nutritive  diet  for  invalids  and 
children. 

Manioc  is  a  widely  used  edible  root ;  it  is  the  staple  food  in  some 
parts  of  Central  and  South  America  and  Africa.  In  the  West  Indies 
it  is  called  cassava.  It  is  also  largely  grown  in  the  central  African  and 
the  East  Indian  countries.  The  roots  contain  a  poisonous  juice,  which 
is  extracted  or  rendered  harmless  by  repeated  washings  before  it  is 
used  as  food.  This  dried  or  grated  root  is  called  farinha  in  South 
America  and  is  the  tapioca  used  in  this  country  for  making  puddings. 
It  is  exported  largely  from  Brazil,  Africa,  and  the  East  Indies. 

Sago  is  obtained  from  the  soft  interior  of  several  species  of  palms ; 
this  interior  has  very  little  woody  fibre,  but  is  composed  almost  entirely 
of  starch.  This  pith  is  put  into  large  tubs  of  water  and  the  starch 
or  sago  powder  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.     The  sago  palm 


42  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

grows  in  China,  Japan,  and  the  East  Indies.    Large  quantities  of  sago 
are  exported  from  Singapore. 


Spices  and  Condiments. 

Black  pepper  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  a  cHmbing  shrub  (Piper 
nigrum).  When  it  is  deprived  of  its  outer  coating  by  washing,  it 
gives  the  white  pepper  of  commerce.  It  is  chiefly  grown  in  the  East 
Indies  and  is  exported  in  large  quantities  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  Nearly  one  half  of  the  spices  imported  into  the  United  States 
consists  of  black  and  white  pepper. 

Chillies,  or  capsicum,  are  pods  containing  a  number  of  small  white 
seeds.  They  are  sometimes  imported  dry  and  form  the  basis  of  cay- 
enne, or  red  pepper.  Immense  quantities  are  used  by  the  people  of 
India,  Africa,  West  Indies,  and  Mexico. 

Cinnamon  is  of  two  kinds,  the  true  cinnamon  grown  in  Ceylon, 
and  the  false  cinnamon,  or  cassia,  largely  grown  in  China,  of  which 
six  times  as  much  is  imported  into  the  United  States  as  there  is  of  the 
true.  Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  an  aromatic  plant  of  the  laurel 
family,  the  younger  twigs  making  the  best. 

Cloves  are  thfc  dried  unexpanded  flower  buds  of  the  clove  tree,  one 
of  the  myrtle  family.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas  and  the  Spice 
Islands,  but  it  is  also  grown  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  in  Africa. 
When  perfect  they  are  dark,  strongly  fragrant  and  the  ball  on  the 
top  is  unbroken.  The  United  States  is  said  to  be  the  largest  consumer 
of  cloves. 

Pimento,  sometimes  called  allspice  from  its  supposed  combination 
of  the  flavors  of  a  number  of  spices,  is  the  dried  unripe  fruit  of  the 
pimento  tree,  one  of  the  myrtles.  It  is  indigenous  to  the  West  Indies 
and  comes  mainly  from  Jamaica.  Its  large  use  is  due  to  its  being 
cheaper  than  other  spices. 

The  fruit  of  the  nutmeg  tree  is  very  much  like  a  small  peach. 
It  contains  a  single  seed  the  kernel,  or  nucleus  of  which  forms  the 
nutmeg  of  commerce,  while  its  fleshy  envelope  is  the  mace  of  com- 
merce.    It  comes  mainly  from  the  Banda  Islands,  although  it  is  cul- 


COFFEE,  48 

tivated  to  some  extent  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Brazil,  and  French 
Guiana. 

Ginger  is  the  dried  root  either  scraped  or  unscraped  of  a  reed-Hke 
plant  grown  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  China,  and  largely  in  Mala- 
bar. It  is  one  of  the  most  important  members  of  the  spice  family, 
ranking  next  to  pepper  in  the  quantity  produced  and  consumed. 
Jamaica  ginger  is  considered  the  best.  Ginger  is  also  imported  in  a 
candied  state. 

Stimulants. 

Stimulants  may  be  divided  into  aromatic  which  are  directly  pre- 
pared by  infusion,  and  alcoholic  or  those  prepared  by  fermentation. 
The  former  owe  their  stimulating  qualities  to  the  presence  of  alkaloids. 
They  are  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  and  mate.  In  the  process  of  fermentation 
whereby  alcoholic  stimulants  are  obtained,  alcohol  is  generated,  and 
this  gives  them  their  characteristic  stimulating  properties. 

Aromatic  Stimulants. 

COFFEE. 

Coffee  (Coff ea  arabica)  consists  of  the  beans,  or  seeds,  of  the  coffee 
tree,  which  is  a  native  of  Arabia.  It  would  naturally  grow  to  about 
twenty  five  feet  in  height,  but  under  cultivation  is  kept  down  by  pruning 
to  six  or  eight  feet  in  order  that  the  berries  may  be  easily  reached.  The 
coffee  tree  can  be  cultivated  between  36°  north  and  30°  south  latitude, 
or  where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below  55°  F.  The  most  favor- 
able climate  is  where  the  temperature  ranges  from  60°  to  80°  in  the 
shade  and  where  there  is  rain  every  month  in  the  year  with  a  total 
annual  rainfall  of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  inches. 
The  best  soil  for  coffee  is  that  called  red  soil,  the  redder  the  better. 
Virgin  soils  are  preferred,  the  trees  and  the  undergrowth  being  burnt 
over  so  as  to  destroy  any  injurious  insects  that  might  exist  in  the  soil. 
The  coffee  berries  when  ripe  are  scarlet  red  and  are  very  much  like 
cherries.  These  berries  are  all  pulped,  that  is,  they  are  placed  in  a 
machine  which  removes  the  outer  covering  without  injuring  the  berries. 
They  are  then  cured  or  exposed  to  the  sun  for  about  a  week,  great 
care  being  taken  that  they  are  not  exposed  to  rain  or  dew.     For  this 


44 


PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


purpose  they  often  use  large  flat  wagons  which  are  pushed  under  cover 
of  a  shed  at  night  or  on  the  least  sign  of  the  approach  of  rain.  They 
are  next  hulled,  or  peeled.  This  consists  in  removing  the  two  skins 
which  cover  the  beans,  the  outer  or  parchment  skin  and  the  inner 
known  as  the  white  or  silver  skin.  This  process  requires  expensive 
machinery  and  is  generally  done  in  the  coffee  works  in  the  larger 
towns.  After  this  they  are  winnowed,  graded,  and  sorted  both  accord- 
ing to  quality  and  size.  The  beans  are  then  put  up  in  bags  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty  two  pounds,  or  an  arroba,  each  and  shipped  mostly 


FIG.  19.— SHOWING  REGIONS  OF  PRODUCTION  ■■  AND  CONSUMPTION  |l||||l|l|  OF  COFFEE. 


to  Europe  and  North  America.  The  sorting  and  grading  of  coffee 
is  a  most  important  factor  in  determining  the  value  of  the  coffee  in 
the  markets  of  the  world.  From  the  same  crop  various  grades  are 
obtained  according  to  the  color  and  size  of  the  beans.  The  best  berry 
is  the  Mocha  grown  in  Yemen,  Arabia.  It  is  small,  dark,  and  yellow. 
Honduras  and  Puerto  Rico  coffees  rank  high.  Rio  coffee  is  divided 
into  five  grades  and  some  of  the  best  Rio  and  Venezuela  coffees  are 
sold  under  the  name  of  Mocha. 

The  world's  coffee  crop  for  1899-1900  was  about  fifteen  million 
bags,  of  which  more  than  two  thirds  was  Brazilian  coffee ;  Central 
America,  Venezuela,  Java,  Mexico,  Puerto  Rico,  Ceylon,  British  West 
Indies,  Arabia,  and  Africa  followed  in  order  of  amounts.     The  prin- 


COFFEE. 


45 


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FIG.  20.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  PRODUCTION  OF  COF- 
FEE. IN  1900,  15  285  000  BAGS,  60  KILOS 
EACH  (1   KILO  =  2.204  LBS.). 


Each  square  =  %  oi  i^g. 


cipal  coffee  markets  are — in 
Europe;  London,  Havre,  the 
Dutch  ports,  Antwerp,  Trieste, 
Bordeaux,  and  Marseilles, — in 
the  United  States;  New  York, 
Baltimore,  New  Orleans,  and 
San  Francisco. 

Ninety  per  cent  of  the  im- 
ports of  the  United  States  are 
via  New  York.  More  than  one 
half  of  all  the  American  coffees 
are  exported  to  the  United 
States,  while  the  greater  part  of 
those  of  Asia  and  Africa  are 
sent  to  Europe.  Santos  ships 
more  coffee  than  any  other  port, 
Rio  being  second  and  Batavia 
third.     Three  fourths  of  all  the 


coffee  imported  by  the  United  States  comes  from  Brazil  and  nineteen 
per  cent  from  other  American  countries.  Asia  and  Africa  furnish  only 
about  five  per  cent  of  our  imports. 
Since  1890  the  quantity  of 
coffee  imported  into  the  United 
States  has  increased  fifty  seven 
per  cent — from  five  hundred  to 
seven  hundred  and  eighty  five 
million  pounds,  while  the  value 
of  the  quantity  imported  has 
decreased  thirty  three  per  cent, 
or  from  seventy  eight  to  fifty 
two  million  dollars.  The  over- 
production of  coffee  has  reduced 
the  price  of  it  from  twenty  p.q.  21  .-.mports  of  coffee  into  the  united 
tents  to  six  and  a  half  cents  per  states.  1 874-1 900. 

pound.       The    tree    when    it    once       Quantity  in  millions  of  pounds.    Value  in  millions 
'■  of  dollars. 

begins  to  bear,  continues  to  do     Quantity.  Value. 


960 
9Z0 
880 
6W 
800 
760 
7Z0 
680 
6f0 
600 
560 
520 
¥80 

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— 

46  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

so  for  years,  so  that  the  production  of  coffee  cannot  be  limited  or  regu- 
lated so  easily  as  that  of  wheat  or  cotton.  This  reduction  of  price 
renders  the  coffee-producing  states  less  able  to  purchase  the  goods  of 
other  countries  and  has  resulted  in  a  considerable  reduction  in  the  value 
of  their  imports  from  manufacturing  nations. 

Coffee  is  used  in  almost  all  civilized  countries  and  its  production 
and  consumption  are  increasing.  The  United  States  consumes  nearly 
as  much  as  all  other  non  coffee-producing  countries  combined.  The 
annual  per  capita  consumption  of  coffee  of  some  of  the  more  promi- 
nent countries  is  shown  in  the  following  chart : 


tmreo  ff/N6DOM 

.K 

^^y 

.99 

AUSTRIA    HUNGARY 

*.04 

GEPMANy 

f.6Z 

UN/TfD  s  TA  res 

/0.79 

FIG.  22.— PER  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION  OF  COFFEE  IN  POUNDS  FOR  1900> 

The  roasted  and  ground  root  of  the  chicory  is  much  used  as  an 
adulterant  of  coffee.  In  1897  seventeen  million  pounds  were  imported, 
but  since  a  duty  has  been  placed  on  it  the  amount  imported  has  de- 
creased to  two  million  pounds  in  1900.  It  comes  from  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, and  the  United  Kingdom.  Large  quantities  are  also  produced 
in  the  United  States. 

TEA. 

Tea  in  a  commercial  sense  is  the  prepared  leaves  of  the  Thea 
chinensis,  or  tea  plant.  It  belongs  to  the  same  family  of  plants  as  the 
camellia.  In  a  wild  state  it  is  bushy,  ranging  in  height  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet,  often  assuming  the  proportions  of  a  small  tree.  Under 
cultivation  it  is  kept  by  frequent  prunings  at  from  three  to  five  feet  in 
height.  Cultivation  has  produced  marked  varieties.  "Thea  verdis" 
is  a  large  hardy  growing  shrub  with  spreading  branches  and  leaves  one 
to  two  inches  long.  It  thrives  without  protection  in  the  open  air  in 
winter  and  yields  the  bulk  of  the  green  teas  of  commerce.  'Thea 
bohea"  is  a  much  smaller  variety  having  smaller  leaves.  It  is  more 
tender  and  prolific  than  the  green  variety  and  will  not  endure  nearly 
as  cold  a  climate.     It  yields  the  black  teas  of  commerce.     Both  the 


TEA. 


47 


green  and  the  black  teas,  however,  can  be  made  from  either  variety  of 
these  plants.  The  quality  of  the  tea  depends  on  exactness  as  to  the 
time  of  picking  it;  the  delay  of  a  single  day  beyond  the  proper  time 
often  changes  the  choicest  leaves  into  an  inferior  grade.  The  picking 
is  done  almost  entirely  by  girls. 

The  preparation  of  tea  for  market  consists  in  the  evaporating,  fer- 
menting, sunning,  firing,  and  rolling  the  leaves.     The  leaves  intended 


FIG.   23.— SHOWING  REGIONS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION  OF  TEA. 


for  black  tea  go  through  the  same  process  as  those  intended  for  green 
teas,  except  that  they  are  evaporated  and  fermented  for  a  much  longer 
time  and  are  not  kept  in  motion  and  fanned  as  constantly;  there  is, 
therefore,  less  sap  left  in  them.  Green  teas  are  of  two  styles,  rolled 
and  twisted,  and  each  of  these  is  sorted  into  two  sizes  or  grades  by 
means  of  sieves.  The  varieties  of  green  and  black  teas  are  endless. 
Tea  leaves  intended  for  export  are  sent  to  the  tea  factories  .where  all 
the  moisture  is  taken  out  by  "firing"  them  in  great  iron  bowls  set  in 
ovens.      It  is  packed  in  chests  lined  with  thin  sheet  lead  and  with 


48 


PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


paper  made  of  mulberry  bark.     Full  chests  contain  three  fourths  hun- 
dredweight, half  chests  half  that  amount. 

The  original  home  of  the  tea  plant  is  believed  to  be  Assam  in 
India.  Lying  just  outside  of  the  tropics  this  state  has  an  abundant 
and  regular  rainfall  with  a  moist  and  steamy  atmosphere.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  cool,  dry  season  in  which  the  plant  rests  and  ripens  after 
growth,  so  that  it  is  readily  seen  why  the  tea  plant  reaches  its  highest 
development  in  Assam.  China  is,  however,  the  largest  producer  of  tea, 
and  it  is  also  extensively  cultivated  in  Japan  and  India.  Outside 
of  these  countries  the  two  most  important  developments  of  tea  pro- 
duction have  been  on  the  islands 
of  Ceylon  and  Java,  both  of 
which  lie,  as  -to  longitude,  in 
what  may  be  called  the  tea  belt 
and  about  equidistant  from  the 
equator — one  north  and  the 
other  south  of  it.  In  these 
islands  the  existence  of  high 
mountains,  heavy  rainfalls,  and 
climates  forcing  continuous 
growth  have  made  the  produc-' 
tion  of  tea  commercially  suc- 
cessful. 

Cultivation  of  tea  has  also 
been  attempted  in  Natal,  Mauri- 
tius, the  Straits  Settlements,  the 
Caucasus,  Johore,  Azores,  Brazil 
and  in  some  of  our  Southern  States,  but  so  far  none  of  them  can  be  con- 
sidered commercially  successful.  Almost  the  entire  amount  of  tea  pro- 
duced is  raised  within  an  area  of  forty  degrees  of  latitude  by  sixty 
degrees  of  longitude,  and  almost  all  the  consumption  is  also  confined 
to  strictly  geographical  limits. 

Tea  is  used  as  a  beverage  by  more  than  one  half  the  people  of 
the  world.  Besides  the  people  of  tea-producing  countries  themselves, 
the  tea  drinkers  are  mainly  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  of 
the  British  Colonies,  the  people  of  Russia,  and  those  of  the  United 


- 

c 

H 

/ 

A/ 

A 

C 

£ 

Y 

L 

0 

N 

t 

i 

N 

/ 

N 

o 

/ 

A 

J 

A 

p 

A 

•y 

A 

V 


A_ 

FIG.  24.— EXPORTS  OF  TEA  IN  1900  FROM  Pho 

DUCING  COUNTRIES.    TOTAL.  578  000  000  LBS. 

Each  square  =  K  of  i^. 


TEA.  49 

States  of  America.  The  world's  consumption  of  tea  outside  of  the 
countries  in  which  it  is  grown  may  be  taken  to  be  about  five  hundred 
milHon  pounds  per  annum,  and  including  the  cost  of  transportation  it 
may  be  valued  at  $85  000  000.  About  ninety  per  cent  of  the  tea  ex- 
ported from  Asia  is  consumed  by  English  speaking  people.  South  of 
the  equator  the  tea  drinkers  are  not  numerous,  being  mainly  in  Aus- 

CANADA 4. 4       ' 


FIG.  25.— PER  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION  OF  TEA  IN  1900. 

tralia  and  South  Africa,  but  in  Australia  the  consumption  is  eight 
pounds  per  capita  annually.  North  of  the  equator  in  the  non  tea- 
producing  countries,  the  main  consumption  is  north  of  forty  degrees. 
In  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  some  portions  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  along  the  north  of  Africa,  green  or  unfermented  teas  from 
Japan  and  China  with  a  pale  pungent  infusion  are  preferred.  The  fur- 
ther north  the  consumer  lives,  the  more  he  seems  to  require  of  the 
black  fermented  teas  of  India,  Ceylon,  and  China  with  the  dark,  thick, 
heavy  liquor  its  infusion  produces.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  take 
nearly  one  half  of  all  the  tea  exported  from  Asia,  Russia  takes  nearly 
one  fifth,  and  the  United  States  about  one  seventh. 

The  importance  of  the  China  trade  in  tea  brought  into  existence 
in  former  years  a  class  of  fast  sailing  vessels  known  as  "China  Clip- 
pers," and  there  was  always  keen  competition  as  to  which  should  reach 
London  first,  as  a  high  price  was  paid  for  the  first  shipment.  At  that 
time  their  route  was  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  1866  three 
vessels  leaving  Foochow  the  same  day,  arrived  at  the  docks  of  London 
ninety  nine  days  afterwards  within  a  few  hours  of  each  other.  The 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  changed  the  course  of  trade.  Steam- 
ers with  great  power  and  speed  were  built  and  the  run  has  been  made 
from  Woosung,  China,  to  London  in  twenty  eight  days.     Formerly 


60  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

most  of  the  tea  trade  was  centered  in  London  and  the  tea  was  distrib- 
uted from  there  to  other  countries.  Now  the  United  States  obtains 
its  tea  also  by  way  of  the  Pacific  coast  ports,  though  a  portion  comes 
via  Suez  Canal  direct  to  New  York. 

The  extensive  Russian  trade  is  still  carried  on  chiefly  overland 
by  caravan,  and  partly  by  river  and  railroad.  This  trade  is  next  in 
volume  to  that  going  to  London.  The  greater  portion  of  the  tea  for 
this  trade  is  put  up  in  compressed  tablets  containing  about  two  pounds, 
called  "brick  tea."  These  tablets  are  put  into  baskets  and  sent  by 
camel  caravans  from  Tientsin  through  Manchuria  to  Siberia.  Russian, 
or  caravan  tea,  is  the  best  and  most  expensive  tea  in  Europe,  and  is 
superior  to  that  sent  over  sea  from  Canton  to  Odessa  for  the  Russian 
trade.  As  the  Siberian  Railroad  progresses,  more  and  more  of  this 
trade  will  reach  Russia  via  railroad. 

The  tea  imported  into  the  United  States  is  almost  entirely  from 
China  and  Japan,  the  larger  portion  being  from  China.  Pacific  coast 
seaports  are  gradually  securing  a  larger  share  of  the  trade.  In  Eng- 
land, India  and  Ceylon  teas  have  largely  supplanted  Chinese  teas, 
more  than  four  fifths  of  the  British  imports  being  from  these  countries. 
The  value  of  the  eighty  four  million  pounds  of  tea  imported  into  the 
United  States  in  the  year  1900  was  $10  558  000. 

COCOA. 

Cacao,  commercially  known  as  cocoa,  consists  of  the  seed  of  the 
cacao  tree,  which  is  found  in  the  West  Indies,  southern  Mexico,  Cen- 
tral America,  in  the  northern  states  of  South  America,  in  West  Africa, 
and  in  the  East  Indies.  The  fruit  is  about  six  to  nine  inches  long  and 
about  one  half  as  wide.  It  contains  twenty  to  forty  seeds  about  the 
size  of  almonds,  known  as  ''cocoa  beans,"  inclosed  in  a  green,  fleshy 
pulp.  In  preparing  them  for  market  the  fruit  is  first  fermented  for 
about  a  week  in  a  heap  with  green  leaves  in  order  to  separate  the  pulp 
from  the  beans.  These  are  then  dried  in  the  sun  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  coffee  beans ;  they  are  then  bruised  and  winnowed  or  cleared 
of  husks.  The  husks  are  the  "cocoa  shells"  and  the  broken  beans  the 
"cocoa  nibs"  of  commerce,  the  latter  being  the  purest  form  in  which 


MATE.  51 

it  comes.  Cacao  butter,  which  does  not  become  rancid  when  kept, 
constitutes  about  one  half  the  weight  of  the  bean,  but  this  is  generally 
removed  in  preparing  cocoa  powder  or  chocolate.  Chocolate  is  a  paste 
made  from  the  seeds  of  the  cacao  tree  sweetened  and  sometimes  fla- 
vored with  vanilla. 

Cocoa  was  known  to  Europe  before  either  coffee  or  tea,  and  is 
preferred  to  any  other  beverage  in  Spain,  where  the  per  capita  con- 
sumption is  six  or  seven  times  that  of  any  other  non-producing  coun- 
try.    France  ranks  next  as  a  consumer  of  cocoa  or  chocolate. 

The  United  States  imported  forty  one  million  pounds  of  crude 
cocoa  leaves  and  shells  valued  at  $5  600  000  in  1900,  which  was  double 
that  imported  in  1890.  Of  this  nearly  one  third  came  from  British 
West  Indies : — Ecuador,  Dutch  Guiana,  Brazil,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Colombia, 
and  Venezuela  following  in  order  of  amounts,  imported  into  the 
United  States.  Of  prepared  cocoa  one  million  pounds  were  imported 
mainly  from  the  Netherlands  and  the  United  Kingdom.  The  manu- 
facture of  chocolate  is  carried  on  in  France  on  the  most  extensive 
scale.  There  are  several  well  known  manufacturers  in  the  United 
States  who  make  the  finest  chocolate  in  the  market.  About  twelve 
million  pounds  of  chocolate  are  consumed  annually  in  the  United 
States.  In  1900,  about  one  million  pounds  were  imported,  more  than 
one  half  of  which  came  from  Germany, 

MATE. 

Mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  is  a  large  article  of  commerce  in  South 
America  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  introduce  it  into  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  It  is  a  species  of  holly.  The  leaves  while  still  on 
the  branches  are  roasted  over  a  wood  fire  and  beaten,  producing  a 
green  powder  and  broken  leaves,  which  is  the  mate  of  commerce.  It 
is  infused  in  boiling  water  and  produces  a  beverage  which  is  very 
refreshing  and  restorative  to  the  human  frame  after  great  fatigue. 
About  two  hundred  and  fifty  million  pounds  are  consumed  annually, 
mainly  in  Paraguay,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  the 
province  of  Parana,  Brazil, 


52 


PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Alcoholic  Stimulants. 


Of  the  alcoholic  stimulants  the  most  important  from  a  commercial 
standpoint  is  that  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  the  vine.  The  vine  is 
found  in  most  of  the  countries  of  the  earth  from  51°  N.  to  46°  S.  lati- 
tude, but  it  is  not  possible  in  all  grape-growing  districts  to  produce  a 
wine  good  for  commercial  purposes. 


WINE. 

Wine  may  be  said  to  be  largfely  a  European  product,  since  of 
the  world's  total  production  of  over  three  billion  g^allons  annually, 

France  produces  28  per  cent, 
Italy  23^  per  cent,  Spain  iy}4 
per  cent ;  it  is  produced  in  lesser 
amounts  also  in  Roumania, 
Turkey,  Russia,  Switzerland, 
Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  other  Eu- 
ropean countries.  It  is  also 
produced  in  the  United  States, 
Brazil,  Algeria,  Australia,  and 
iCape  Colony.  In  the  United 
States  the  principal  wine-pro- 
ducing states  are  California, 
New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
•Michigan,  Virginia,  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Ar- 
kansas, and  Missouri. 

In  making  wine  the  grapes 
are  gathered  in  baskets  and 
emptied  into  tubs  having  a  hole  in  the  bottom.  The  grapes  are 
crushed  by  men  treading  on  them  and  the  juice  runs  through  to  a  large 
vat  below.  When  the  vat  is  nearly  full  the  juice  is  left  to  ferment.  As 
the  sugar  ferments,  carbonic  acid  gas  bubbles  up  to  the  surface,  and 
alcohol  is  formed  from  the  sugar  in  the  juice.  After  fermentation 
ceases  the  temperature  of  the  liquor  decreases.  When  it  is  cold  it  is 
drawn  off  through  a  tap  near  the  bottom  of  the  vat  into  casks.     In 


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A\u\s\r  p  /i>»|    .    1    1 

FIG.     26.— WORLD'S     TOTAL     PRODUCTION     OF 
WINE  IN  1899.  3  305  000  000  GALLONS. 

One  h\oz\<i=V».  oli  %, 


WINE.  53 

these  a  second  fermentation  takes  place  and  the  cask  is  kept  open  until 
it  ceases  to  ferment. 

Wines  vary  according  to  the  amount  of  sugar,  alcohol,  and  acid 
which  they  contain.  Those  in  which  the  sugar  has  been  only  half 
fermented,  like  Tokay  and  Malaga,  are  called  sweet  wines.  Dry, 
strong  wines  like  Madeira,  Sherry  and  Port  are  fully  fermented  wines, 
all  the  sugar  having  been  converted  into  alcohol.  Champagne  and 
other  sparkling  wines  owe  their  briskness  to  the  fact  of  having  been 
bottled  while  fermentation  was  still  going  on.  Still  wines  are  those 
which  were  not  bottled  until  fermentation  had  ceased. 

The  color  of  wines  is  due  to  that  of  the  skins  which  were  fer- 
mented with  them.  Logwood,  brown  sugar,  and  other  substances  are 
also  used  to  color  wines.  Soil,  climate,  and  the  amount  of  care  given 
during  fermentation  are  all  important  factors  in  determining  the  quality 
of  the  wine.  The  same  vineyard  sometimes  varies  in  the  quality 
of  wine  produced  in  different  years. 

Tke  system  of  wine  making  in  California,  while  on  a  larger  scale, 
is  the  same  as  the  most  approved  method  in  France,  and  the  quality 
of  many  of  the  wines  is  of  high  standard,  better  indeed  than  much  of 
the  wine  imported  from  Europe.  New  York  is  next  to  California  in 
importance  as  a  wine-producing  state,  followed  by  Ohio,  which  makes 
the  best  white  wine  in  America. 

The  value  of  the  importation  of  wines  into  the  United  States  has 
decreased.  It  now  averages  nearly  $7  000  000  annually,  more  than 
one  half  being  for  champagne,  or  sparkling  wines,  of  which  France 
furnishes  ninety  three  per  cent.  The  still  wines  are  supplied  by  Ger- 
many, thirty  five  per  cent ;  France,  twenty  eight  per  cent,  and  Spain, 
sixteen  per  cent. 

California  wines  constitute  the  bulk  of  those  exported  from  the 
United  States.  Their  value  in  1900  was  about  $600000,  of  which 
seventeen  per  cent  went  to  the  United  Kingdom,  thirteen  per  cent  to 
Mexico,  fifteen  per  cent  to  Hawaii,  and  twelve  per  cent  to  Germany. 
In  1899,  France,  although  the  largest  wine-producing  country,  im- 
ported $53000000  worth  of  wine  and  exported  $44000000  worth. 
The  quantity  of  wme  imported  was  five  times  that  exported.  This 
was  due  partly  to  the  enormous  consumption  and  partly  to  the  fact 


54  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

that  Spanish  and  Algerian  wines  are  largely  used  in  France  to  make 
French  wines.  The  United  Kingdom  imports  about  thirty  million 
dollars'  worth  of  wine  annually,  mainly  from  France,  Portugal,  and 
Spain,  although  Germany,  Netherlands,  Italy,  Australia,  South  Africa, 
and  the  United  States  furnish  smaller  amounts. 

DISTILLED  SPIRITS. 

Alcohol  is  a  product  derived  from  fruits,  grains,  and  vegetables 
which  contain  glucose,  or  grape  sugar.  The  sugar  is  converted  into 
alcohol  by  fermentation  and  the  alcohol  is  then  extracted  by  distillation. 
The  product  obtained  by  passing  the  fermented  liquid  through  the  still 
once  is  brandy,  but  by  re-distilling  the  same  several  times  we  have  pure 
alcohol.  Alcohol  forms  the  active  or  intoxicating  part  of  all  fer- 
mented beverages.  It  is  also  the  base  of  many  medicines  and  is  used 
for  various  purposes  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

Indian  corn  is  practically  the  source  of  all  alcohols,  cologne  spirits, 
high  wines  and  other  alcoholic  products  of  the  United  States.  About 
fifteen  million  bushels  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol.  In 
Germany  and  France  large  quantities  of  alcohol  are  made  from  pota- 
toes. 

Proof  spirit  contains  about  47.24  per  cent  by  weight  or  57.06  per 
cent  by  volume  of  absolute  alcohol.  The  percentage  of  alcohol  con- 
tained in  different  liquors  is  as  follows : — whiskey,  rum,  brandy,  and 
gin  contain  over  50  per  cent,  port  23,  sherry  19,  Burgundy  and  claret 
13,  champagne  12,  Rhine  wine  11,  Tokay  10,  Moselle  9.6,  cider  8,  ale  7, 
and  beer  4. 

Brandy  is  a  distillation  from  wine.  In  the  United  States  besides 
grapes  various  other  fruits  are  used,  as  apples  and  peaches.  The  largest 
quantity  of  brandy  is  made  in  the  province  of  Charente  in  the  southwest 
of  France  near  Cognac,  which  is  the  main  shipping  point.  When  first 
made  it  is  without  color  but  obtains  its  color  from  the  casks.  New 
brandy  is  sometimes  colored  with  brown  sugar  to  give  it  the  appearance 
of  age.  France  furnishes  ninety  per  cent  of  the  brandy  imported  into 
the  United  States. 

Rum  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  from  molasses  m  the  New  England  States.     Jamaica  rum  is  col- 


MAL  T  LIQ  UORS.  55 

ored  with  caramel  or  brown  sug^ar.  About  a  million  dollars'  worth  of 
rum  is  exported  from  the  United  States,  of  which  in  1900  ninety  four 
per  cent  was  sent  to  Africa. 

Schiedam  schnapps,  or  gin,  is  made  in  Holland  from  grains  fla- 
vored with  the  juniper  berry. 

Whiskey  is  made  from  rye,  corn,  oats,  barley.  Scotland,  Ireland, 
the  United  States,  and  Canada  produce  the  largest  quantities.  Large 
quantities  of  corn  are  used  in  the  United  States  for  the  manufacture  of 
whiskey,  more  being  made  from  it  than  all  the  other  grains  combined. 
Indian  corn  whiskey  is  usually  called  Bourbon  to  distinguish  it  from 
rye  whiskey.  The  starch  in  the  corn  is  first  converted  into  sugar,  and 
the  resulting  mash  fermented  and  subjected  to  distillation.  Fusel  oils, 
aromatic  and  other  oils  pass  over  in  the  distillation.  After  proper  rec- 
tification the  distilled  whiskey  is  colored  with  burnt  sugar,  placed  in 
oak  barrels,  and  allowed  to  lie  in  a  warehouse  from  three  to  five  years. 
During  this  period  the  fusel  oils  are  oxidized,  the  whiskey  is  rendered 
mild  and  agreeable  in  flavor,  and  a  general  improvement  due  to  aging 
takes  place. 

The  quantity  of  distilled  spirits  of  all  kinds  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1900  was  one  hundred  and  nine  million  gallons.  These  dis- 
tilled spirits  were  produced  in  almost  every  state.  Illinois  produced 
31  per  cent,  Kentucky  20,  Indiana  16,  Ohio  7,  Pennsylvania  7.  The 
exports  of  distilled  spirits  from  the  United  States  during  1900  amounted 
in  value  to  $2  278  000,  and  the  value  of  the  imports  was  $3  600  000.  The 
largest  producers  and  greatest  consumers  of  spirits  are  Russia,  Ger- 
many, France,  United  States,  and  United  Kingdom. 

MALT  LIQUORS. 

Beer  is  made  from  malt,  hops,  and  water.  Malt  is  made  chiefly 
from  barley,  but  it  can  be  made  from  other  grains.  The  barley  or 
other  grain  is  wet  arid  spread  over  the  floor  of  a  dark  room  where  it 
swells  and  sprouts.  It  is  then  dried  in  a  kiln  and  the  sprouts  drop  off 
and  are  sifted  out.  The  sprouting  is  stopped  when  it  is  thought  the 
grain  has  the  most  sugar  in  it.  The  barley  is  now  called  malt  and  is 
dried  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  kind  of  beer  intended  to  be 
made ;  for  light  ales  a  shorter  time  than  for  heavy  ales,  and  for  porter 


56 


PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


or  brown  stout  it  is  dried  until  it  is  brown.  The  ground  malt,  or 
grist,  is  now  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  forms  a  liquid  which  is  called 
sweet  wort.  This  is  boiled  with  hops  which  gives  it  a  bitter  taste.  It 
is  then  cooled  and  strained  into  a  fermenting  tun;  a  little  yeast  is 
added,  fermentation  takes  place  and  alcohol  is  formed  from  the  sugar. 
Lager  beer  is  fermented  in  a  different  way  from  ale,  the  yeast  being 
put  in  casks  where  the  fermentation  goes  on  slowly.  A  bushel  of 
barley  yields  fifteen  gallons  of  beer  in  Great  Britain  and  twenty  five  in 
Germany.  The  world's  production  of  beer  amounts  to  about  five  bil- 
lion gallons  annually,  of  which 
Germany  produces  29,  the  Unit- 
ed Kingdom  26,  United  States 
nearly  19  per  cent. 

In  the  United  States  thirty 
nine  million  barrels  of  fermented 
liquors  were  made  in  1900,  of 
which  New  York  produced 
nearly  ten  millions,  Pennsyl- 
vania over  four  millions,  Illi- 
nois, Ohio,  and  Wisconsin  over 
three  millions  each,  New  Jersey 
and  Missouri  over  two  millions 
each,  and  Massachusetts  over 
one  and  three  fourths  millions 
of  barrels. 

In  1900  the  value  of  the  malt 
liquors  imported  into  the  United 
States  amounted  to  nearly  $1  800  000,  of  which  seventy  seven  per  cent 
was  from  the  United  Kingdom,  mostly  ales,  and  eleven  per  cent  from 
Germany.  Over  $2  000  000  worth  was  exported  in  1900,  being  nearly 
four  times  as  much  as  in  1898.  The  increase  was  mainly  to  Cuba, 
Puerto  Rico,  China,  Hong  Kong,  Philippines,  and  Hawaii. 


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FIG.  27  .—WORLD' S  TOTAL  PRODUCTION  OF  BEER 
IN  1899.   4  950  000  000  GALLONS. 

Each  square  =  ^  of  i^. 


Per  Capita  Consumption. 

The  kind  of  alcoholic  drinks  consumed  by  the  inhabitants  of  a 
country  is  largely  determined  by  its  climate.     Wine  has  been  called 


PER   CAPITA   CONSUMPTION.  fit 

bottled  sunshine,  and  it  is  not  strange  to  find  it  the  national  drink  of 
the  Latin  countries  bordering  on  the  shores  of  the  sunny  Mediter- 
ranean. The  per  capita  consumption  of  wine  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing chart : 

WINE 

O.S.    U.K.  S  HOLLAND  tS        Ca/X 

^^    eCLGIUM    S    eeffMANY  A. 

AUSTP/A  2.6  • 

fOfjTUCAL     S    ITALY  20.  I  " 

r/fANCC  ■  2tf.3  m 

FIG.  28.— PER  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION  OF  WINE  IN  1900. 

Beer  is  the  national  drink  of  peoples  of  Teutonic  origin  living 
in  generally  colder  and  more  northern  climates  than  those  of  wine- 
drinking  countries.  The  following  chart  shows  the  per  capita  con- 
sumption of  beer: 

BEER 

fi$  Gals. 
«,«      * 
S.3     » 

^1^  9.9       - 
10.9        m 


Sl^/TZCRLANO  fS.  4 

os/^/^A»/f  20.6 

^____^^_^^____  27.  f 


G£fir^A/\IV 


UNITED    f<INCDOf^  3l.  $  M 

FIG.  29.— PER  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION  OF  BEER  IN  1900. 

Bavaria  consumes  56  gallons  of  beer  per  capita,  and  its  principal 
city,  Munich,  141  gallons,  which  is  the  largest  amount  per  capita 
consumed  in  any  city  in  the  world.  The  largest  amount  of  beer- 
drinking  in  France  is  done  in  the  north,  very  little  beer  being  used 
in  the  wine  districts  of  the  south.  The  United  States  being  populated 
by  people  largely  of  Teutonic  origin,  and  having  a  climate  normally 
cooler  than  that  of  Mediterranean  countries,  is  found  among  the  beer- 
drinking  countries.  Switzerland,  which  is  part  German,  part  French, 
and  part  Italian,  ranks  high  both  in  wine  and  beer  drinking.     The 


58  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

largest  per  capita  consumers  of  spirits  are  found  among  the  northern 
nations,  all,  with  the  exception  of  France  and  Russia,  of  Teutonic 
stock.  Denmark  consumes  3  gallons  per  capita  annually;  France, 
Germany,  Austria,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Sweden  about  2  gallons; 
and  the  United  States,  United  Kingdom,  Switzerland,  and  Russia, 
about  I  gallon  per  capita  each. 

Wine  is  more  of  an  article  of  commerce  between  nations  than 
either  beer  or  whiskey.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
the  more  northern  nations  are  richer  than  those  of  the  south  and  there- 
fore buy  wine  in  considerable  quantities,  while  the  poorer  nations  of 
the  south  buy  very  little  beer  or  spirits.  The  consumption  of  wine  is 
stationary  while  that  of  beer  is  steadily  increasing,  not  only  in  the 
United  States,  where  the  per  capita  consumption  has  trebled  in  thirty 
years,  but  also  in  other  beer-drinking  countries  like  Germany  and 
Great  Britain. 

The  importance  of  the  production  and  consumption  of  alcoholic 
drinks  is  greatly  enhanced  in  all  countries  by  the  fact  that  a  large 
revenue  is  obtained  from  them  by  taxation.  As  the  amount  imported 
is  very  small  in  comparison  with  that  produced  at  home,  the  bulk  of 
the  tax  is  derived  from  internal  taxation  on  home  product.  In  Great 
Britain  84  p.  c,  in  most  countries  90  p.  c,  and  in  the  United  States 
96  p.  c.  of  the  national  revenue  from  alcoholic  liquors  is  obtained  from 
the  domestic  production.  The  enormous  sums  collected  can  be  seen 
when  we  find  that  in  1900  in  the  United  States,  62  p.  c.  of  the  internal 
revenue,  amounting  to  $184000000,  was  derived  from  this  source, 
which  with  $8000000  from  custom  duties  made  the  total  revenue 
$192000000.  In  the  following  countries  the  revenue  in  1898  was 
as  follows : 

Great  Britain   $170  000  000 

United  States 147  000  000 

France    no  000  000 

Germany   64  000  000 


TOBACCO.  59 

Narcotics. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco  consists  of  the  dried  leaves  of  several  species  of  Nicotiana, 
which  belongs  to  the  same  natural  order  of  plants  as  the  potato.  It 
owes  its  stimulating  and  narcotic  qualities  to  the  presence  of  nicotine, 
which  is  an  active  poison  and  dangerous  when  swallowed. 

The  tobacco  plant  is  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America. 
Columbus  found  it  in  universal  use  by  the  natives  in  America.  It 
derived  its  name  from  tabaco  the  native  Santo  Domingo  word  for  the 
pipe  in  which  it  was  smoked.  It  was  introduced  into  the  old  world  by 
the  early  discoverers  of  America  and  is  now  cultivated  in  almost  every 
country  of  the  world.  The  limitation  of  its  area  arises  from  the 
necessity  of  protecting  it  against  frost  during  growth.  While  found 
in  some  cases  as  far  north  as  50°,  the  best  varieties  are  usually  found 
between  35°  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 

The  two  species  most  generally  cultivated  are  the  Virginia  tobacco 
(N.  tabacum)  and  Green  tobacco  (N.  rustica)  originally  from  Brazil. 
The  tobacco  raised  in  Cuba,  the  United  States,  the  Philippines,  and 
the  Latakia  of  Turkey  are  derived  from  Virginia  tobacco.  Those 
grown  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and  the  East  Indies  are  derived  from 
Green  tobacco.  The  mature  tobacco  plant  is  about  six  feet  in  height 
with  large  broad  leaves  growing  to  about  two  feet  in  length.  When 
fully  grown  the  plant  is  cut  ofif  near  the  ground  and  then  hung  head 
downward  on  poles.  This  is  done  in  open  buildings  so  that  the  air  can 
pass  between  the  leaves  and  dry  them.  In  about  three  months  the  leaves 
are  stripped  from  the  stems,  packed  in  boxes  or  casks,  and  sent  to  the 
manufacturer.  In  the  factory  the  stems  or  midribs  are  pulled  out  of 
the  leaves  and  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  low  grades  of  smoking 
tobacco  and  snuff;  sheep  dip  and  a  fumigating  powder  for  destroying 
insects  in  greenhouses  are  also  made  from  these  stems.  The  leaves  are 
used  according  to  their  quality  for  making  cigars  and  cut  tobacco. 

To  make  cut  tobacco  the  leaves  are  made  up  into  long  cakes  by 
pressure  and  then  cut  fine  by  machinery.  This  cut  tobacco  is  put  into 
packages  and  given  a  variety  of  fancy  names.  Tobacco  is  sweetened, 
colored,  and  flavored  by  the  use  of  molasses,  licorice,  and  other  sub- 
stances to  give  it  the  aroma  or  taste  demanded  by  the  different  markets. 


.60  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Most  of  the  cut  tobacco  is  used  for  smoking  in  pipes  and  some  of  it 
for  making  snuff  which  is  consumed  largely  in  England  and  France. 
Chewing  tobacco  is  also  made  from  cut  tobacco.  Some  chewing  tobacco 
is  made  in  the  form  of  plugs  or  twists,  others  into  cakes.  It  is  con- 
sumed almost  entirely  in  the  United  States.  Cigars  are  made  from 
the  leaves  of  the  plant  rolled  into  a  cylindrical  form  and  wrapped  in  a 
single  leaf  generally  of  a  different  grade  of  tobacco.  Cigarettes  are 
made  from  cut  tobacco  wrapped  in  unsized  paper. 

The  difference  in  soil  and  climate  affects  the  flavor  of  the  tobacco, 
and  this  determines  the  value  of  the  leaf  for  different  markets  and  uses. 
Connecticut  produces  a  leaf  which  is  large,  fine,  and  silky,  and  is  used 
mainly  for  wrappers.  Sumatra  tobacco  is  also  used  largely  for  this 
purpose.  Virginia-raised  tobacco  is  generally  too  strong  for  cigars 
and  is  used  for  smoking  in  pipes  and  for  chewing  tobacco.  Foreign 
tobaccos  are  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  locality  near  which 
they  are  grown.  Cuban  tobacco  is  considered  the  finest  for  cigars  and 
is  called  Havana  from  the  place  of  export.  Most  Havana  cigars  are 
now  made  either  outside  of  Cuba  with  Havana  tobacco,  or  in  Cuba  with 
tobacco  from  Manila  and  Puerto  Rico,  as  well  as  the  native  product. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  tobacco-growing  country  in  the 
world.  The  production,  over  one  half  of  which  is  exported,  is  esti- 
mated at  over  seven  hundred  million  pounds,  or  about  the  same  as  that 
of  all  Europe.  The  principal  tobacco-growing  states  are  Kentucky 
(about  one  third),  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Ohio,  Penn- 
sylvania, Connecticut.  The  chief  tobacco-growing  countries  of 
Europe  are  Austria-Hungary  (about  one  third),  Russia,  Germany, 
Netherlands,  Belgium,  Turkey.  Tobacco  is  also  extensively  grown 
in  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  other  Latin-American  countries,  and  in  India, 
China,  Java,  Sumatra,  the  Philippines,  Ceylon,  Syria,  and  Cape  Colony. 
The  largest  shipping  ports  are  New  York,  Baltimore,  Richmond, 
Havana,  and  Manila. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  exporter  of  tobacco,  ranging  in 
value  from  $25  006  000  to  $35  000  000  worth  annually.  Europe  buys 
about  90  per  cent,  the  United  Kingdom  being  the  largest  purchaser. 
Nearly  all  the  tobacco  sent  to  Europe  is  in  the  form  of  leaf  tobacco. 
Outside  of  Europe,   Canada,   Australia,   Japan,   and   British   Africa 


TOBACCO. 


61 


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are  the  largest  buyers  of  leaf  tobacco  from  the  United  States.  Qf  the 
stems  and  trimmings  exported  almost  all  are  sent  to  Germany  and 
Netherlands.  Very  few  cigars  are  exported,  but  cigarettes  to  the 
value  of  $2  000  ooo  are  sold  abroad  mainly  to  China,  India,  Japan, 
Australia,  and  British  Africa;  and  about 
the  same  value  of  plug  tobacco. 

The  United  Kingdom  is  the  largest 
importer  of  tobacco;  it  purchased  in  1900 
about  $24  000  000  worth  of  tobacco  and  its 
manufactures,  of  which  more  than  90  per 
cent  was  from  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  imported  leaf  tobacco  to  the 
value   of   $13000000    in    1900,    of    which 

nearly  one  half  was  wrapper  tobacco  and  fig.  30. -tobacco  and  mfrs.  of 
more  than  one  half  was  filler  tobacco.     Of 
the   tobacco    suitable    for    wrappers    88% 
'came   from   Netherlands ;   a  large   part   of 
this  came  originally  from  the  Dutch  colo- 
nies of  Java  and  Sumatra.     Of  tobacco  suitable  for  fillers  90%  came 
from  Cuba,  being  largely  used  in  our  own  manufacture  of  Havana 
cigars. 

In  Austria,  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Japan,  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco  is  a  government  monopoly,  no  one  else  being  allowed  to 
manufacture  it. 

In  all  countries  tobacco  is  heavily  taxed  and  is  a  large  source  of 
revenue.     In  the  United  States  the  imported  tobaccos  paid  more  duty 


IMPORTS   AND   EXPORTS,    1891- 
1900,  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

-  Exports. 

Imports. 


*" 

RUSSIA 

TOBACCO 

2.71    - 

3.2^- 
3.77  - 

7.23 

7.70 
1.67 
2.05 
2.52 
3.00 
6.75 
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FIR.  ai— PFR  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION  OF  TOBACCO,   1900, 


63  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

in  1900  than  their  invoiced  value,  or  about  $14000000.    The  domest 
tobacco  paid  internal   revenue  taxes  amounting  to  over  $59000000 
in  1900. 

The  per  capita  consumption  of  tobacco  is  largest  in  Holland, 
being  nearly  7  pounds.  In  India  it  is  used  by  all  classes  and  both  sexes, 
and  the  same  is  true  in  China  where  girls  of  six  or  seven  years  of  age 
smoke  it  regularly. 

OPIUM. 

Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  white  poppy  (Papaver  somni- 
ferum).  The  plant  grows  to  three  or  four  feet  in  height  and  produces 
a  round  seed  vessel  about  the  size  of  a  small  apple.  The  juice  is 
obtained  by  scratching  this  capsule  and  the  operation  may  be  repeated 
six  or  seven  times  during  a  season.  The  hardened  juice  is  carefully 
picked  off  after  each  puncturing.  Opium  is  chiefly  used  as  a  narcotic. 
It  may  be  taken  in  the  form  of  pills,  as  is  usual  in  Mohammedan 
countries  like  Turkey  and  Persia;  or  in  the  form  of  tinctures  or  solu- 
tions like  laudanum  and  morphia,  which  is  the  method  used  by  persons 
who  become  addicted  to  its  use  in  Christian  countries;  or  it  may  be 
smoked  in  small  pipes  as  in  China  and  other  oriental  countries.  The 
narcotic  principle  is  morphia,  solutions  of  which  are  used  in  medicine 
to  alleviate  pain. 

The  collection  of  opium  forms  an  important  industry  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  Persia,  northern  India,  Egypt,  and  China.  That  exported 
from  Smyrna  in  Asiatic  Turkey  is  the  finest,  the  bulk  of  which  is 
exported  to  the  United  States.  India  is  the  country  in  which  it  is  an 
important  commercial  product.  It  is  cultivated  mainly  in  Patna, 
Benares,  and  Malwa,  whence  it  is  exported  in  round  balls  mainly  to 
China.  The  government  holds  a  monopoly  of  buying  from  the  growers, 
paying  them  $1.25  a  pound ;  and  as  twenty  five  pounds  can  be  raised  on 
an  acre,  this  is  a  good  investment  for  the  farmer.  The  Indian  govern- 
ment secures  an  annual  revenue  varying  from  $10  000  000  to  $25  000- 
000  from  opium. 

China  consumes  more  than  any  other  country  most  of  it  being 
smoked,  which  is  the  least  harmful  method  of  using  it.     The  import 


HOPS— SUGAR  plants) 


into  China  from  India  amounts  in  value  to  about  $27  000  000  annually  j 
but  as  the  plant  is  being  largely  cultivated  in  China,  the  amount 
imported  is  gradually  lessening.  The  use  of  opium  was  originally 
forced  on  China  in  order  to  make  a  market  for  the  Indian  product. 

In  1900  crude,  or  unmanufactured  opium  to  the  value  of  more  than 
a  million  dollars  was  imported  into  the  United  States,  nearly  all 
of  which  came  either  directly  or  indirectly  from  Turkey  and  was  used 
mainly  for  medical  purposes  and  also  about  $1  000  000  worth  of  opium 
for  smoking  from  China.  When  first  taken  in  small  quantities  it  ex- 
hilarates and  is  used  for  this  purpose  instead  of  wines  and  liquors. 
It  acts  as  a  stimulant  enabling  those  using  it  to  'endure  great  fatigue. 
The  narcotic  and  sedative  influences  are  after  effects  resulting  from  the 
collapse  of  the  system.  In  the  hands  of  the  physician  its  uses  are 
unlimited ;  its  abuses  by  humanity  cause  ruin. 


HOPS. 

Hops  may  be  called  the  English  narcotic.  They  are  the  seed- 
bearing  greenish  flowers  of  the  hopvine  containing  lupuline  which  is  a 
powdery  substance  about  one  sixth  of  the  weight  of  the  flowers.  Their 
principal  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  and  ale.  They  give  to  beer 
the  bitter,  aromatic  flavor  and  also  its  narcotic,  or  soporific  effect. 

The  hopvine  is  extensively  cultivated  in  England,  Germany,  and 
Austria  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Belgium,  Holland,  France,  and  Russia. 
England  and  Germany  raise  more  than  one  half  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion. In  the  United  States  the  hop-producing  states  are  California, 
Oregon,  Washington,  New  York,  and  Wisconsin ;  and  while  this  coun- 
try imported  in  1900  over  two  million  pounds  of  hops  mainly  from 
Germany,  it  exported  twelve  million  pounds,  nearly  all  to  Great  Britain. 


Sugar  Plants. 

Sugar  affects  a  larger  portion  of  the  human  race  than  any  other 
commercial  product.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is  found  more  or 
less  in  all  plants  and  is  known  to  all  countries  civilized  and  uncivilized. 


64  PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  two  most  important  kinds  of  sugar  entering  into  commerce  are  cane 
sugar,  or  sucrose,  and  grape  sugar,  or  glucose. 

// 

CANE  SUGAR. 

Cane  sugar  is  so  called  because  it  is  obtained  largely  from  the  juice 
of  the  sugar  cane  (Saccharum  officinarum),  a  plant  belonging  like 
the  cereals  to  the  grass  family.  The  plant  looks  very  much  like  Indian 
corn  and  is  grown  entirely  for  the  juice  and  not  for  the  seeds.  It  is 
probably  a  native  of  eastern  Asia,  but  it  is  cultivated  in  nearly  all  tropi- 
cal and  sub-tropical  countries.  It  is  sometimes  grown  in  localities  with 
an  average  temperature  of  sixty  to  sixty  five  degrees  Fahr.,  but  the  best 
results  are  obtained  where  the  average  temperature  is  from  seventy  five 
to  eighty  five  degrees.  This  same  kind  of  sugar,  sucrose,  is  also 
obtained  from  the  sugar  beet,  from  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  tree, 
from  sorghum,  and  from  several  species  of  palms. 

Sugar  Cane  Sugar:  When  the  sugar  canes  are  ripe  they  are  cut 
down  close  to  the  ground,  the  tops  and  leaves  are  cut  off,  and  the  canes 
are  sent  to  the  sugar  mill  which  is  generally  on  the  plantation.  At  the 
mill  the  canes  are  crushed  between  rollers  and  the  fluid  thus  squeezed 
out  is  collected ;  the  crushed  cane,  or  bagasse,  is  afterwards  used  as  fuel. 
If  allowed  to  stand,  the  juice  is  liable  to  ferment  owing  to  impurities; 
it  is  therefore  passed  through  strainers  at  once  into  iron  or  copper 
kettles  where  it  is  heated  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  degrees  Fahr.  At 
this  time  a  little  slacked  lime  is  added,  after  which  it  is  brought  to  the 
boiling  point  and  the  impurities  which  rise  to  the  surface  are  carefully 
removed.  The  purified  juice  is  then  boiled  in  vacuum  pans  until  it  is 
sufficiently  concerttrated,  when  it  is  run  off  into  large  open  pans  to 
crystallize.  The  crystals  form  into  a  solid  mass  and  are  known  as 
muscovado,  or  raw  sugar;  the  non-crystallizable  portion  is  known  as 
molasses.  The  separation  of  the  molasses  from  the  sugar  is  now 
effected  by  machines  called  centrifugals  which  accomplish  in  a  few 
minutes  what  formerly  required  days.  After  the  molasses  has  been 
extracted,  the  raw  sugar  is  sent  to  the  refineries  which  are  generally 
located  in  northern  United  States  and  in  England. 

Beet  Root  Sugar:  More  than  one  half  the  sugar  entering  into  the 
commerce  of  the  w^orld  is  obtained  from  the  sugar  beet  (Beta  vulgaris) 


SUGAR.  65 

of  which  there  are  several  varieties  cultivated.  These  beets  contain 
from  ten  to  twelve  per  cent  of  sucrose.  Beet  sugar  first  appeared  as  a 
commercial  product  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century; 
now  it  is  the  principal  source  of  supply  for  sugar  in  all  the  countries  of 
continental  Europe.  The  beet  roots  are  washed  and  are  then  generally 
rasped  into  a  pulp  by  machinery.  This  rasped  pulp  is  put  into  bags  and 
i  the  juice  expressed  by  means  of  a  hydraulic  press.  Good  beets  contain 
ninety  six  per  cent  of  juice  of  which  twelve  per  cent  is  sucrose,  or  cane 
sugar.  The  juice  is  sometimes  extracted  by  centrifugals  and  some- 
:  times  by  a  method  called  the  ''diffusion  process"  in  which  the  beets  are 
sliced  into  thin  shavings  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  water;  this 
method  is  sometimes  adopted  with  sugar  cane.  The  further  processes 
with  the  beets  are  similar  to  those  adopted  with  the  sugar  cane. 

Sugar  Refining:  When  the  raw  sugar  is  brought  to  the  refinery  it 
is  first  dissolved  in  water  and  the  solution  boiled  with  white  of  tgg 
or  serum  of  blood  to  purify  it.  Sugar  refineries  are  generally  high 
buildings  and  in  them  the  sugar  is  pumped  up  to  the  highest  floor  into 
pans  heated  by  steam.  Lime  is  put  into  it  and  it  is  allowed  to  run 
through  bags  made  of  cloth  to  the  next  floor  where  it  runs  into  cylinders 
containing  bone-black  to  take  out  the  color.  Passing  down  to  the  next 
floor  it  is  boiled  again  in  vacuum  pans  to  take  out  all  the  moisture,  when 
the  sugar  crystallizes  perfectly  white.  When  it  is  drained  into  moulds  it 
becomes  loaf  sugar ;  when  the  sirup  is  separated  from  the  sugar  by  the 
centrifugals  which  whirl  it  rapidly  round,  it  is  called  granulated  sugar. 
The  sirup  is  sold  under  the  name  of  sugar-house  sirup. 

Maple  sugar  is  derived  from  the  sap  of  sugar  maple  trees  grown 
in  Canada  and  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States;  especially  Ver- 
mont, New  Hampshire,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  where 
there  are  immense  numbers  of  sugar  maple  trees,  the  product  coming 
into  the  market  being  about  five  thousand  tons.  The  sugar  produced 
has  a  peculiar  and  agreeable  flavor  which  is  destroyed  by  refining, 
when  it  becomes  ordinary  cane  sugar.  It  is  used  mainly  as  a  sirup 
and  in  the  form  of  candy. 

Sorghum  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  Chinese  sugar  grass,  or  sor- 
ghum millet.  It  is  largely  cultivated  in  northern  India,  China,  and 
Japan,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States.     Its  cultivation  has  been  more 


66 


PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


successful  in  the  Central  and  Western  States  than  in  the  other  parts  of 
the  United  States.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  making  sugar  from  it, 
the  bulk  of  the  product  is  used  in  the  form  of  sirup  of  which  about 
twenty  five  million  g-allons  annually  are  made  in  the  United  States. 

Palm  Sugar  is  obtained  from  several  palms  grown  in  India,  but 
very  little  of  it  is  exported. 


GLUCOSE. 

Glucose,  or  grape  sugar,  is  so  called  from  the  abundance  of  it  in 
grapes,  about  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent.  The  sirup  may  be  refined  the 
same  as  cane  sugar  but  is  too  costly  for  ordinary  use.  The  glucose  of 
commerce  is  made  mainly  from  starch  obtained  from  corn,  and  it  can 
be  made  from  almost  any  woody  fibre,  or  cellulose,  by  the  action  of 
acids.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  to  separate  the  starch  from  the 
corn  by  soaking,  grinding,  straining,  and  settling,  and  then  converting 
the  starch  into  sugar  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  This  acid 
is  afterward  removed  by  chalk  after  clarifying,  and  the  liquid  thus 

produced  is  concentrated  in  vacuum  pans 
and  decolorized  with  bone-black.  Grape 
sugar  has  about  two  thirds  the  sweetening 
power  of  cane  sugar.  The  quantity  of  corn 
annually  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of 
glucose  is  about  forty  million  bushels.  The 
exportation  of  glucose  from  the  United 
States  in  1900  amounted  in  value  to  $3  600- 
000,  or  over  four  times  that  of  1890,  nearly 
all  of  which  was  sold  to  Great  Britain. 

Commercially  the  important  sugars 
are  those  made  from  the  sugar  cane  and  the 
sugar  beet.  It  will  be  seen  from  Fig. 
32  that  the  total  production  of  sugar 
entering  into  the  commerce  of  the  world 
has  been  more  than  trebled  since  1870.  The, 
production  of  cane  sugar  is  nearly  double  what  it  was  in  1870,  while 
beet-root  sugar  is  five  and  one  half  times  as  much.  In  the  same  period 
the  wholesale  price  has  been  reduced  from  five  cents  to  two  and  one 


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FIG.  32.— COMPARATIVE  PROGRESS 
OF  PRODUCTION  OF  CANE  AND 
BEET  SUGAR,  AND  TOTAL  SUGAR 
PRODUCTION,  ENTERING  INTO 
COMM  ERCE  FROM  1  840  TO  1  900, 
IN  THOUSANDS  OF  TONS. 

Cane. 

—  .  —  .  —  .  —Beet. 

Total. 


SUGAR, 


67 


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FIG.  33. -WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  CANE  SUGAR 

IN    1900.    2  850   000   TONS  (NOT   INCLUDING 

INDIA). 

One  block  =  K  of  i^. 


half  cents  per  pound.  The  sur- 
plus sugar  of  the  countries  rais- 
ing sugar  cane  would  not  supply 
the  amount  imported  into  the 
United  States.  India  produces 
more  sugar  than  any  other  coun- 
try, but  its  product  of  two  mill- 
ion two  hundred  thousand  tons 
in  1900  is  not  included  in 
Fig.  33  because  it  does  not 
enter  into  the  commerce  of  the 
world.  Java  is  the  next  in  im- 
portance, exporting  over  six 
hundred  thousand  tons. 

Beet  sugar  is  supplied 
almost  entirely  by  continental 
Europe.     The  quantity  of  beet 

sugar  produced  in  igoo  is  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  is 

steadily  gaining.     The  amount 

per  capita  by  countries  for  the 

year  1900  is  shown  in  Fig.  35. 
The     United     States     and 

Great  Britain   each  imports  on 

the  average  about  $100000000 

worth    of    sugar    annually.      In 

1900  the  United  States  imported 

over    four    billion    pounds    of 

which    seven    hundred    million 

pounds  were  beet  sugar.     The 

cane   sugar  came  mainly   from 

Java,     Hawaii,     Cuba,     British 

West    Indies,    British    Guiana, 

Santo    Domingo,    Puerto    Rico, 

Eevot     Brazil     Peru     and    the     fig.  34.-world'S  total  production  of  beet 

xLgypi,    jDrdzii,    jreru,    ana    tne  sugar  in  1 900,  5  950  000  tons. 

Philippines.      Beet   sugar   came  One  block  =  k  of  i^. 


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68  PRODUCTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

principally  from  Germany  and  Austria,  and  some  trom  Belg^ium  and 
Russia. 

The  transfer  of  the  production  of  sugar  from  the  planta- 
tions of  the  tropics  to  the  farms  of  the  temperate  zone  has  produced 
results  that  no  one  could  have  foreseen.  The  lowering  of  the  price 
caused  by  the  enormous  increase  in  production  of  beet  sugar  impover- 
ished the  sugar  planters  of  the  tropics.  In  Cuba  and  the  Philippines 
this  brought  on  a  revolution  owing  to  their  inability  to  pay  the  taxes 
imposed  by  Spain.  This  finally  produced  the  Spanish-American  war 
which  caused  Spain  to  lose  her  possessions  in  America  and  Asia,  and 
changed  the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  them.  The  British  West 
Indies  are  also  seriously  injured  by  the  price  of  sugar  and  have  dis- 
cussed the  advisability  of  becoming  a  part  of  the  United  States. 


f?U55IA 

13.9 

pof?ru6Ai. 

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17.6 

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65.Z 

UNIT£D  HINGDOM 

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■            St.f 

FIG.  35.— PER  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION  OF  SUGAR  IN  POUNDS  FOR  1900. 

The  contest  between  beet  sugar  and  cane  sugar  for  the  markets  oi 
the  world  will  continue  for  many  years  to  come.  The  United  States, 
as  the  largest  consumer  and  importer  of  sugar  and  also  as  a  country 
capable  of  becoming  the  greatest  producer  of  beet  sugar  in  the  world, 
will,  by  the  policy  it  adopts  on  the  subject,  determine  largely  the  future 
welfare  of  sugar  producing  countries.  In  Java,.  Hawaii,  Cuba,  and 
other  favorably  situated  countries  the  average  amount  of  sugar  obtained 
from  an  acre  planted  with  sugar  cane  is  double  that  obtained  in  Ger- 
many and  other  countries  from  an  acre  planted  with  sugar  beets.  The 
cost  of  production  of  a  ton  of  sugar  in  tropical  countries  is  five  to  seven 
dollars  less  than  in  European  countries.  Sugar  cane  growers  have  the 
advantage  of  ease  of  cultivation,  richness  of  production,  and  low  price 
of  labor.    Sugar  beet  growers  have  the  advantage  of  a  dense  population 


SUGAR.  6d 

consuming  not  only  a  large  part  of  the  sugar,  but  also  the  refuse 
material  which  is  used  as  cattle  food.  In  addition,  the  superior  methods 
and  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  and  the  abun- 
dance of  capital  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  ready  for  investment 
are  also  in  its  favor. 

The  main  reason  for  the  success  of  beet  sugar  is  the  aid  given  by 
European  governments  in  the  form  of  bounties  in  order  to  encourage 
its  cultivation.  These  bounties  were  formerly  so  arranged  as  to  act 
as  a  premium  for  an  improvement  in  the  sugar  producing  qualities  of 
the  beet  as  well  as  to  increase  the  quantity  produced.  The  effect  has 
been  that  the  production  in  Germany  alone  has  increased  from  i86  ooo 
tons  in  1870  to  i  844000  tons  in  1899,  and  the  percentage  of  sugar  in 
the  beets  from  8.28%  in  1870  to  13%  in  1899.  The  bounty  is  generally 
paid  on  the  sugar  exported  and  the  result  has  been  to  increase  the  price 
of  sugar  to  the  home  consumer  by  the  amount  of  the  bounty  while 
enabling  the  manufacturer  to  supply  the  foreign  markets  at  a  lower  rate 
than  he  would  otherwise  be  able  to  do. 

To  prevent  these  bounty  aided  sugars  from  competing  unfairly 
with  the  domestic  sugar,  the  United  States  has  imposed  countervailing 
duties.  All  sugar  imported  from  foreign  countries  must  pay  a  tariff  of 
1.5  to  1.95  cents  per  pound.  Sugar  coming  from  countries  which  give 
a  bounty  must  pay  the  amount  of  this  bounty  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary tariff.  The  bounties  paid  vary  from  ^  to  ^  cents  a  pound  in 
Germany  and  Austria,  to  ^  to  9-10  cents  a  pound  in  France  and  other 
European  countries.  Germany  and  Austria,  because  of  the  lower  boun- 
ties, were  the  countries  from  which  the  United  States  imported  most 
of  its  beet  sugar  in  1900. 

The  United  States  consumed  over  2  200  000  tons  of  sugar  in 
1900,  of  which  about  one  eighth  was  produced  within  our  own  borders, 
about  one  seventh  was  beet  sugar  imported  from  Europe,  and  the 
remainder  was  from  countries  producing  sugar  from  sugar  cane.  The 
duties  collected  on  sugar  in  1900  amounted  to  $57000000,  or  one 
fourth  of  all  the  duties  received  from  imported  goods. 

In  the  United  States  the  beet  sugar  industry  has  been  successful 
in  a  number  of  states,  the  pfesent  production  amounting  to  over  one 
hundred  thousand  tons;  California,  Nebraska,  Utah,  Michigan,  Min- 


70 


PRODUCTS  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


nesota,  Missouri,  and  New  York,  all  have  beet  sugar  factories  in  opera- 
tion. In  California  there  are  four  factories  which  consume  one  thou- 
sand tons  of  beets  a  day,  one  which  consumes  two  thousand  tons,  and 
the  largest  beet  sugar  factory  in  the  world  which  consumes  three  thou- 
sand tons  of  beets  and  produces  four  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  sugar 
daily. 

The  beet  thrives  in  temperate  climates  which  in  the  United  States 
cover  a  large  area.    It  does  best  in  regions  with  plenty  of  sunshine  and 


FIG.    36.— SHOWING   WHERE   BEET   SUGAR  MAY  BE   GROWN    IN   THE   UNITED   STATES;   ALSO 
THE  JULY  ISOTHERM  OF  71°;   ALSO  WHERE  CANE  SUGAR  IS  GROWN. 

where  the  average  temperature  in  June,  July,  and  August  is  about  70° F. 
This  isothermal  line  has  been  determined  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  is  shown  in  the  map.  Dr.  Wiley  the  chemist 
of  the  department  gives  one  hundred  miles  on  each  side  of  this  Hne  as 
the  sugar  beet  area,  but  experience  has  shown  that  it  extends  beyond 
this.  The  map  indicates  in  a  general  way  the  area  in  which  soils  and 
climate  can  be  found  suitable  to  the  successful  raising  of  sugar  beets. 
As  will  be  seen  the  sugar  cane  belt  is  small  in  comparison  with  the 
sugar  beet  belt.  A  policy  of  encouragement  of  sugar  beet  cultivation 
would  in  thirty  years  result  in  a  crop  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  needs 


LIVE  STOCK.  71 

of  the  United  States,  even  if  the  per  capita  consumption  of  sugar 
doubled  itself  as  it  has  done  in  the  last  thirty  years.  The  effect  of  such 
a  policy  would  be  disastrous  to  the  present  sugar-producing  countries 
both  in  the  tropics  and  in  Europe,  and  would  create  financial  and  com- 
mercial disturbances  greater  than  those  produced  by  the  bounty-aided 
sugars  of  Europe.  In  the  farming  communities  if  beet  sugar  factories 
were  established,  the  diversified  interests  naturally  gathering  around 
such  a  centre  would  give  a  larger  home  market  for  all  other  farm 
products. 

Molasses  is  the  drippings  obtained  during  the  manufacture  of  raw 
sugar.  Sirup  is  the  drainage  obtained  during  the  manufacture  of 
refined  sugar.  Owing  to  improved  processes  of  refining  very  little  sirup 
is  obtained  in  that  way.  Many  of  the  sirups  in  the  market  are  manu- 
factured from  glucose  and  are  claimed  to  be  as  nutritious  and  healthful 
as  refined  sugar  sirup  although  not  so  sweet.  Of  the  $2  000  000  worth 
of  molasses  and  sirup  exported  from  the  United  States,  sixty  five  per  cent 
is  sold  to  Great  Britain. 

FOOD  PRODUCTS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 
Live  Stock. 

Cattle — Sheep — Hogs. 

The  distribution  of  domestic  animals  throughout  the  world  is 
determined  by  the  distribution  of  the  grass  lands.  The  raising  of  flocks 
and  herds  has  been  carried  on  for  ages  by  the  pastoral  tribes  of  the 
steppes  of  Asia.  On  the  treeless  plains  of  North  America,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Plata,  in  Australia  and  Africa,  the  same  industry 
is  carried  on  by  the  descendants  of  Europeans.  Most  countries  raise 
enough  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  to  supply  their  own  needs.  It  is 
mainly  in  the  manufacturing  countries  of  Europe  that  the  consumption 
of  animal  products  is  greater  than  their  production. 

While  some  of  the  domestic  animals  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden 
others  are  raised  mainly  to  provide  food  and  clothing.  Among  those 
used  as  beasts  of  burden  are  the  reindeer  in  the  tundras  of  the  north, 
the  horse,  the  mule,  and  the  ox  in  temperate  climates,  and  the  camel  in 
the  desert  regions.    The  horse  is  the  most  universally  distributed  of  all 


72 


FOOD  PRODUCTS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 


these  animals  and  without  it  herdsman  and  ranchman  could  not  raise 
such  large  flocks  and  herds.  In  the  most  complete  statistics  attainable 
the  total  number  of  horses  is  given  as  sixty  four  millions  of  which 
nearly  one  third,  or  twenty  one  millions,  are  in  Russia,  fourteen  millions 
in  the  United  States,  and  four  and  one  half  millions  in  Argentina. 

The  world's  supply  of  meat  products  is  obtainable  mainly  from 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  gloats.  Cattle  are  sometimes  distinguished 
from  horses,  sheep,  and  goats  by  calling  them  neat  cattle. 

Cattle:  There  are  over  three  hundred  million  cattle  in  the  world, 
of  which  the  United  States  has  the  largest  number  or  forty  two  millions. 
Other  large  cattle-raising  nations  are  Russia,  India,  Argentina,  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary,  France,  Australia,  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  Uruguay. 


FIG.  37.— MEAT  PRODUCING  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 
Beef  »!»i  Mutton  'W/M/I/M.  Mutton  and  Beef 

Cattle  are  raised  not  only  to  supply  meat  but  also  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  In  the  United  States  there  are  sixteen 
million  milch  cows  raised  entirely  for  dairy  purposes.  There  has  been 
a  fairly  constant  increase  and  distribution  of  these  animals  over  all 
parts  of  the  country ;  the  chief  cause  for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  local 
demand  for  milk.  New  York,  Missouri,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  Penn- 
sylvania raise  the  largest  number  of  milch  cows.  In  some  countries 
where  the  facilities  for  transportation  are  poor,  cattle  are  sometimes 


PROVISIONS.  73 

raised  mainly  for  their  hides.  This  is  the  case  in  Colombia,  Argentina, 
and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  in  Brazil.  Live  cattle  are  exported  Irom  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  Argentina.  Ninety  one  per  cent  of  those 
exported  from  the  United  States  is  sold  to  Great  Britain  and  amount 
to  about  two  thirds  of  the  total  imports  of  cattle  into  that  country. 
Canada  and  Argentina  supply  the  remainder. 

Sheep :  There  are  over  six  hundred  million  sheep  in  the  world ;  of 
these  Australia  has  over  one  hundred  millions,  Argentina  eighty  mil- 
lions, Russia  forty  eight  millions.  United  States  forty  millions.  Sheep 
are  raised  largely  for  their  wool,  mutton  not  entering  so  largely  into  the 
foreign  trade  in  meats  as  either  beef  or  pork.  Live  sheep  are  exported 
from  Argentina,  the  United  States,  and  Canada ;  Argentina  exports  the 
largest  number. 

Hogs:  The  United  States  raised  thirty  nine  million  swine  in 
1900  which  is  more  than  any  other  nation  in  the  world.  Germany, 
Russia,  and  Austria  raised  each  about  ten  millions,  France  six  and 
one  half  millions.  Great  Britain  three  and  one  half  millions,  and  the 
Danubian  states  j;hree  and  one  half  millions.  Live  hogs  are  very  sel- 
dom exported. 

While  fruits  and  cereals  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  food  consumed 
in  the  world,  meat  products  form  an  important  part  of  the  food  supply 
in  many  countries.  The  largest  per  capita  consumption  of  meat  is 
naturally  found  in  the  meat-exporting  countries  like  Australia,  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  Denmark.  After  them  come  the  manufac- 
turing countries  of  northwestern  Europe.  In  most  of  these  the  con- 
sumption of  meat  is  greater  than  the  production  and  therefore  the  bulk 
of  the  foreign  trade  in  meats  is  to  supply  the  demand  in  these  countries. 

Provisions. 

The  United  States  classifies  all  meat  products  under  the  head  of 
provisions,  which  includes  beef,  pork,  mutton,  dairy  products,  etc.  The 
total  exports  of  provisions  during  the  fiscal  year  1900  amounted  to  over 
$180000000,  being  exceeded  in  the  value  of  the  amount  exported  by 
breadstuffs  and  raw  cotton  only.  The  United  States  is  the  largest  con- 
tributor to  the  world's  meat  supply ;  its  exports  of  these  products  exceed 


74  FOOD  PRODUCTS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 

those  01  any  other  nation.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  United  States  is  adapted  to  the  production  of  corn. 
Cattle  and  hogs  not  only  consume  corn  but  they  condense  and  trans- 
form it  into  less  than  one  fifth  of  its  bulk.  This  lessens  the  cost  of 
transportation  and  enables  the  farmer  to  raise  them  profitably  thou- 
sands of  miles  from  the  final  markets.  The  hogs  of  the  United  States 
consume  about  one  third  of  the  entire  corn  crop,  or  eight  hundred 
million  bushels.  Owing  to  the  cheapness  of  transportation  the  area 
of  hog-raising  has  extended  westward.  Formerly  it  moved  from  the 
Eastern  States  to  Ohio  and  Indiana ;  it  has  since  moved  further  west  to 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  Swine  are  raised  to  a  larger 
extent  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 
In  other  countries  corn  is  not,  as  here,  the  main  food.  In  Canada  peas 
are  largely  used  and  this  is  the  reason  why  Canadian  bacon  sells  higher 
in  London  than  American  bacon.  In  Servia,  Roumania,  and  some  other 
countries,  swine  are  raised  largely  in  the  forests  and  subsist  chiefly 
on  acorns  and  roots. 

The  increase  of  swine  throughout  the  West  is  largely  due  to  the 
development  of  the  packing  industry  which  is  the  wholesale  curing  and 
packing  of  hogs.  It  is  also  associated  with  the  slaughtering,  dressing, 
and  shipping  of  cattle  and  sheep,  but  so  far  as  packing  is  concerned  it 
chiefly  affects  swine.  The  tendency  of  the  packing  industry  is  to  locate 
as  near  as  possible  to  where  the  hogs  are  raised.  The  largest  packing 
centres  are  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  St. 
Joseph,  Milwaukee,  and  Cincinnati.  The  introduction  of  refrigerating 
processes  and  the  advances  made  in  the  methods  of  chilling  meats  have 
allowed  the  packing  to  be  continued  during  the  summer  months,  thus 
providing  fresh  hog-meat  for  the  market  all  the  year  round. 

The  area  in  which  cattle  raised  mainly  for  production  of  beef  are 
found,  has  moved  rapidly  westward.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  their 
products  are  so  readily  transportable.  More  than  one  half  of  the  beef 
cattle  of  the  United  States  are  found  in  Texas,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming.  Immense  herds  are  raised  in  these 
'states  lying  in  the  great  grazing  region  of  the  far  west.  Later  they  are 
driven  or  transported  to  the  corn-growing  sections  where  they  are 
fattened,  and  shipped  by   rail   to   the   chief   meat-packing  centres  at 


PROVISIONS.  75 

Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  St.  Jose  wnere  mey  are 
slaughtered  and  sent  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in  refrigerated  cars,  and 
shipped  abroad  in  vessels  having  ice  chambers.  Many  are  sent  all  the 
way  to  the  Eastern  States  where,  after  being  fattened,  they  are  sent  to 
the  local  markets. 

Sheep  have  not  increased  as  rapidly  in  the  United  States  as  cattle 
and  hogs.  In  the  east  they  have  decreased.  The  mountain  states  of  the 
west  have  now  more  than  one  half  of  all  the  sheep  in  the  United  States, 
Very  little  mutton  is  exported  from  the  United  States,  the  European 
markets  being  supplied  mainly  from  Australia  and  Argentina.  Aus- 
tralia exported  over  four  million  frozen  carcasses  of  mutton  in  1900. 
New  Zealand  leads  in  the  export  of  frozen  mutton,  and  Queensland  in 
the  export  of  beef.  Argentina  exported  two  million  frozen  wethers. 
These  are  carried  to  European  markets  in  ships  containing  ice  chambers 
which  are  kept  below  freezing  point. 

The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  export  trade  in  meat 
products  of  the  United  States  for  the  year  1900 : 

BEEF  PRODUCTS.  HOG  PRODUCTS. 

Canned  beef    $5  233  000           Ham    $20  414  000 

Fresh  beef 29  643  000           Bacon 38  975  000 

Salted  beef    2  697  000            Pork  10  169  000 

Tallow   4  398  000            Lard  41  939  000 

Great  Britain  buys  nearly  all  the  fresh  beef,  three  fifths  of  the 
canned  beef,  three  sevenths  of  the  salted  beef,  and  one  half  of  the  tal- 
low, exported  from  the  United  States.  Continental  Europe  is  next 
in  importance  followed  by  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  Africa, 
on  account  of  the  war,  imported  twice  as  much  canned  beef  in  1900  as  it 
did  in  the  previous  year.  The  United  Kingdom  bought  eighty  per  cent 
of  the  bacon  and  ham,  over  one  half  of  the  pork,  and  one  third  of  the 
lard,  exported  from  the  United  States.  Germany  also  imported  about 
one  third  of  the  lard.  Pork  products  find  a  better  market  in  continental 
Europe  than  beef  products.  Outside  of  Europe,  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America  are  the  largest  buyers  of  pork  products.  A  comparison 
of  the  trade  of  1900  with  that  of  1891  shows  that  there  has  been  a 


•^e 


FOOD  PRODUCTS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 


falling  off  in  the  exports  of  canned  goods,  although  a  valuable  market 
has  been  developed  in  British  Africa.  In  salted  and  pickled  beef 
there  has  also  been  a  falling  off.  The  export  of  fresh  beef  has 
doubled  and  that  of  hams  trebled  since  1891.    The  United  Kingdom 


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FIG.  38— EXPORTS  OF  BEEF  AND  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 
FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1865-1900,  IN 
MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

Beef. 

Dairy  Products. 


FIGo39.— EXPORTS  OF  BACON  AND  HAM, PORK, LARD 
AND  TOTAL  HOG  PRODUCTS  FROM  THE  UNITED 
STATES,   1865-1900,   IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

1 Total.  3+  +  +  +  +  Lard. 

2 Bacon  and  Ham.        i • Pork 


is  the  greatest  meat  market  in  the  world;  the  imports  of  killed  meat 
amounted  to  $i8o  coo  ooo  in  1900  which  was  sixty  per  cent  more  than 
the  total  exports  of  killed  meat  from  the  United  States.  A  study  of  this 
market  shows  what  countries  compete  with  the  United  States  for  this 
trade. 

Imports  of  principal  meat  products  into  the  United  Kingdom : 


Bacon.   .    >   .  $58  000  000,  United  States  60^;  Canada  g<fo 

Fresh  Beef  ,  40  000  000,  United  States  75^;  Australia  14% 
Hams  ....    20  oco  000,  United  States  90^;  Canada  10% 

Salted  Meat  .  4  500  000,  United  States  23^;  Netherlands  S7% 
Mutton  ...  29  000  000,  Australia  60^;  Argentina  29% 
Rabbits   ...     3  500  000,        Australia     67^;  Belgium         22^ 


Denmark      25% 


Netherlands  I2J^ 


The  demand  for  meat  products  is  growing  more  rapidly  than  the 
supply.  During  the  last  ten  years  the  exports  of  killed  meat  from  the 


DAIRY  PRODUCTS.  77 

United  States  increased  thirty  per  cent;  during  the  same  time  the 
imports  of  killed  meat  into  Great  Britain  increased  ninety  per  cent 
owing  to  the  increased  purchasing  power  of  the  working  classes. 
Population  is  increasing  more  rapidly  on  the  continent  of  Europe  than 
the  cattle  herds  and  soon  they,  like  the  United  Kingdom,  will  import 
largely  from  the  United  States. 

The  United  States  has  fully  one  hundred  and  fifty  million  head 
of  food  stock  and  slaughters  six  billion  pounds  of  pork,  seven  billion 
pounds  of  beef,  six  billion  pounds  of  mutton,  and  eighty  million  pounds 
of  veal;  this  country  handles  nine  million  hides,  eleven  million  pelts, 
and  the  by-products  of  thirty  five  million  slaughtered  animals.  The 
prosperity  of  this  industry  affects  that  of  the  whole  community,  be  they 
farmers,  mechanics,  merchants,  or  those  engaged-  in  transportation. 
The  tendency  is  clearly  in  the  direction  of  largely  increased  exports, 
but  this  may  be  affected  in  the  future  as  in  the  past  by  inimical  legisla- 
tion on  the  part  of  foreign  nations  in  the  interest  of  their  own  farming 
communities  or  that  of  their  colonies.  American  meats  have  been  sent 
to  every  civilized  country  on  the  globe,  and  are  preferred  for  expedi- 
tions into  the  polar  regions  or  to  supply  the  current  needs  of  South 
Africa,  India,  and  the  tropical  countries  like  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies. 

Oleomargarine  is  used  largely  in  some  European  countries.  Hol- 
land, France,  and  the  United  States  are  the  largest  manufacturers  of 
it.  Ten  and  one  half  million  dollars  worth  of  oleo  oil  were  exported 
from  the  United  States  in  1900,  of  which  Holland  bought  over  fifty  per 
cent,  Germany  twenty  per  cent,  and  other  Europe  eighteen  per  cent. 
About  one  hundred  million  pounds  of  oleomargarine  are  made  in  the 
United  States,  of  which  less  than  five  million  pounds  are  exported. 
The  United  Kingdom  imports  twelve  million  dollars  worth  of  marga- 
rine chiefly  from  Holland. 

DAIRY  PRODUCTS. 

Milk,  butter  and  cheese  are  the  most  important  dairy  products. 

Milk:  Cow's  milk  is  the  only  kind  that  is  of  any  importance  from 
a  commercial  standpoint.  Koumyss,  or  fermented  mare^s  milk,  is 
used  largely  by  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Asia.     In  Russia  and  other  coun- 


78  FOOD  PRODUCTS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 

tries  it  is  esteemed  as  a  remedy  for  consumption.  Ghee  is  a  kind  of 
butter  made  in  India  from  the  milk  of  buffaloes.  Roquefort  cheese  is 
made  in  France  from  ewes'  milk.  Parmesan  cheese  is  made  in  Italy 
from  goat's  milk.  Milk  contains  minute  round  floating  balls  of  fat 
enclosed  in  a  thin  skin  of  albumen.  When  put  in  a  cool  place  these 
balls  rise  to  the  top  and  form  cream.  In  churning  the  cream  the  skin 
is  broken  and  the  balls  of  fat  run  together  forming  butter.  Skim  milk 
is  what  remains  after  the  cream  is  taken  away,  and  is  composed  of 
curd,  or  casein,  and  a  thin  watery  Hquid  called  whey.  By  using  an  acid 
juice  called  rennet,  the  casein  coagulates  or  curdles  and  cheese  is 
formed.  This  is  separated  from  the  whey  and  pressed  in  vats,  hoops, 
or  moulds  and  is  put  away  to  ripen. 

Fresh  milk  is- used  locally  in  large  quantities,  but  very  little  is 
ever  exported. 

Condensed  milk  is  cow's  milk  boiled  down  until  all  the  water  is 
expelled,  after  which  it  is  sweetened  with  a  little  sugar  and  put  into 
tin  cans.  It  can  be  transported  long  distances  and  will  keep  in  good 
condition  in  the  most  trying  climates  for  a  long  period  of  time.  The 
United  States,  Switzerland,  and  France  manufacture  it  in  large  quanti- 
ties and  export  it  to  England,  Germany,  and  other  countries.  Of  the 
over  one  million  dollars  worth  exported  from  the  United  States,  one 
third  goes  to  Cuba  ;  United  Kingdom,  Japan  and  Hawaii  also  take 
large  quantities  of  it. 

Butter  and  Cheese:  The  world's  production  of  butter  and  cheese 
amounts  to  about  two  million,  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons 
annually,  of  which  the  United  States  produces  nearly  one  fourth  and 
consumes  over  one  fifth.  Russia,  Germany,  United  Kingdom,  and 
France  are  the  next  largest  producers  of  these  products,  but  as  they  all 
consume  more  than  they  produce  they  are  compelled  to  import  from 
Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Holland,  Switzerland,  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  United  States.  The  United  Kingdom  consumes  more 
butter  and  cheese  per  capita  than  any  other  nation.  The  value  of  the 
butter  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  is  $86  ooo  ooo,  and  of  the 
cheese  $34  cx)0  000.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  butter  comes  from  Denmark  ; 
Sweden,  Norway,  France,  Australia,   Netherlands,  and  Canada  also 


DAIRY  PRODUCTS.  79 

Canada,  twenty  five  per  cent  from  the  United  States,  and  fifteen  per 
cent  from  Holland.  Denmark  is  largely  devoted  to  butter  making  and 
Canada  to  cheese  and  butter  making.  Cheese  is  the  most  important 
single  item  of  export  from  Canada.  Switzerland  and  France  export 
large  quantities  of  cheese. 

The  dairying  industry  of  the  United  States  has  made  more  pro- 
gress than  any  other  branch  of  agriculture  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  It  has  become  the  specialty  of  districts  of  wide  area  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  first  great  improvement  was  in 
the  selection  of  breeds  of  cattle;  first,  because  of  their  ability  to  pro- 
duce large  quantities  of  medium  milk  like  the  Ayreshires  of  Scotland 
and  the  Holstein-Frisians  of  north  Holland,  and  second,  because  their 
milk  was  exceedingly  rich  and  especially  suited  to  the  making  of  butter 
like  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  from  the  Channel  Islands.  Some  whole 
herds  of  cows  frequently  average  over  seven  quarts  of  milk  a  day  for 
three  hundred  days,  and  others  average  from  three  hundred  to  three 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year. 

Milking  by  hand  still  continues,  but  the  separation  of  cream  from 
the  milk  is  now  done  largely  by  means  of  cream  separators.  These 
are  made  in  different  sizes  capable  of  separating  fifteen  gallons  to  five 
hundred  gallons  in  an  hour,  and  in  this  way  the  labor  in  a  dairy  is 
largely  reduced.  Creameries  and  cheese  factories  do  away  with  a 
large  part  of  the  labor  on  a  'farm.  Ninety  seven  per  cent  of  the  cheese 
in  the  United  States  is  made  in  three  thousand  cheese  factories.  New 
York  and  Wisconsin  have  one  thousand  each ;  New  York  makes  about 
one  half  and  Wisconsin  one  fourth  of  all  the  cheese  made  in  the  United 
States.  Nine  tenths  of  the  cheese  produced  in  the  United  States  is 
Cheddar  cheese,  but  new  kinds  and  imitations  of  foreign  cheese  are 
increasing. 

The  exports  of  cheese  from  the  United  States  amounted  to  about 
$5000000  in  1900,  and  the  imports  to  $1800000;  of  the  exports 
ninety  per  cent  g:o  to  the  United  Kingdom,  of  the  imports  forty 
per  cent  comes  from  Switzerland  and  over  half  from  France,  Italy, 
and  Holland.  Cheeses  are  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  place 
in  which  they  were  originally  made,  but  they  are  now  often  imitated  in 
other  countries  and  exported  from  them.     Cheddar  and  Stilton  are 


80  FOOD  PRODUCTS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 

English ;  Brie,  Roquefort,  and  Neufchatel  are  French ;  Gruyere,  Swiss ; 
Limburger,  Belgian;   and  Parmesan,  Italian. 

Butter,  notwithstanding  the  great  number  of  creameries,  is  still 
largely  made  on  the  farm.  Iowa  produces  about  one  tenth  of  all  the 
butter  made  in  the  United  States ;  New  York  comes  next  as  a  butter- 
producing  state,  and  is  followed  by  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  Ohio  and  Kansas.  Of  the  exports  amounting  to  $3  000  000, 
sixty  per  cent  goes  to  the  United  Kingdom,  ten  per  cent  to  the  West  j 
Indies,  and  ten  per  cent  to  Central  and  South  America.  \ 

The  aggregate  annual  value  of  the  produce  of  dairy  cows  in  the 
United  States  is  five  hundred  million  dollars,  of  which  fifty  per  cent 
is  the  value  of  the  butter,  thirty  three  and  one  third  per  cent  the  value 
of  the  milk,  and  five  and  one  half  per  cent  the  value  of  the  cheese.  The 
Danish  and  Canadian  governments  have  a  system  of  inspection  on  the 
butter  exported  from  these  countries  by  which  the  quality  is  guaran- 
teed; such  a  system  adopted  in  the  United  States  would  result  in  an 
increased  sale  of  our  butter  in  foreign  countries. 

Eggs  from  domestic  poultry  form  an  important  article  of  commerce 
in  European  countries,  not  only  for  use  as  a  food  but  also  for  the 
production  of  egg  albumen,  which  is  the  dried  white  of  eggs  and  is 
used  largely  in  calico-printing.  The  United  States  produces  over  ton 
billions  of  eggs  annually,  which  is  more  than  double  that  of  Russia, 
and  three  times  that  of  France,  Germany,  or  Hungary.  The  largest 
egg-importing  countries  in  igoo  were  the  United  Kingdom  $26  cxxD- 
000,  and  Germany  $25  000  000.  The  largest  exporting  countries  are 
Russia,  Austria,  France,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Italy,  and  Canada.  The 
exports  of  eggs  from  the  United  States  is  less  than  a  million  dollars  in 
value,  or  about  one  fourth  that  of  the  little  kingdom  of  Denmark.  The 
Danish  ^^^  trade  in  London  is  growing  tremendously.  By  a  system  of 
co-operation  and  inspection  similar  to  that  in  their  butter  trade,  they 
guarantee  the  delivery  of  the  eggs  fresh.  The  shell  of  every  Q.gg  is 
required  to  be  marked  by  an  India  rubber  stamp  with  the  name  of  the 
shipper,  and  if  a  single  rotten  tgg  is  found  by  the  London  inspector 
a  heavy  fine  is  imposed  upon  the  Danish  depot  exporting  it; 


COTTON.  81 

RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 
Textile  Fibres. 

Textile  fibres  may  be  divided  into:  I — Surface  fibres,  2 — Bast 
fibres,  3 — Structural  fibres. 

Surface  fibres  are  those  which  are  obtained  from  the  down,  or  hairs, 
surrounding  the  seeds  or  seed  envelopes  usually  contained  in  a  pod  or 
capsule, — cotton. 

Bast  fibres  are  obtained  from  the  inner  fibrous  barks  of  exogenous 
plants, — flax,  hemp,  jute,  ramie. 

Structural  fibres  are  obtained  from  the  structural  system  of  the 
stalks,  leaf  stems,  and  leaves  of  endogenous  plants, — manila  hemp, 
sisal  hemp. 


k 


Surface  Fibres. 
COTTON. 


Cotton  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  vegetable  fibres  and  enters 
more  largely  into  commerce  than  any  of  them.  It  consists  of  the  tufts 
of  woolly  fibres  which  envelop  the  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant.  This  plant 
belongs  to  the  genus  Gossypium  of  the  same  natural  order  as  the  mal- 
low and  the  hollyhock.  It  is  raised  from  the  seed  and  produces  a  flower 
closely  resembling  the  hollyhock.  After  the  flower  falls,  the  pods,  or 
bolls,  grow  very  fast  and  soon  burst,  forming  balls  that  look  like  snow 
white  wool  and  about  the  size  of  an  orange. 

Cotton  is  picked  by  hand.  The  pickers  walk  between  the  bushes, 
gather  the  down  from  the  open  bolls,  and  put  it  into  bags  w^hich  they 
carry  around  the  neck  or  waist.  When  the  bag  is  filled  it  is  emptied 
into  baskets  at  the  end  of  the  row.  The  seeds,  which  are  about  the 
size  of  a  pea,  adhere  to  the  cotton  when  it  is  picked.  These  seeds  are 
separated  from  the  fibre  by  a  process  which  is  called  ginning.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  gms,  the  roller  gin  and  the  saw  gin;  the  latter  was 
invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1793.  In  it  the  seed  cotton  is  held  in  a  box, 
outside  of  which  is  a  grate  of  steel  bars  or  ribs.  Through  the  openings 
of  the  grate  a  number  of  steel  discs,  notched  on  the  edges  and  called 


88  /?AW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

saws,  rotate  rapidly.  The  notches,  or  teeth,  of  the  saw  take  hold  of  the 
fibre  and  pull  it  from  ^  the  seed.  The  seed  falls  to  the  floor  below 
through  a  slit  in  the  ribs.  After  the  cotton  is  ginned  it  is  taken  to  the 
press  house  and  pressed  into  bales  generally  five  hundred  pounds  in 
weight ;  in  other  countries  the  bales  are  not  so  heavy.  A  new  round 
bale  is  coming  into  use  which  is  said  to  effect  a  great  saving.  In  these 
the  air  is  pressed  out  of  the  cotton  making  it  weigh  thirty-five  pounds 
per  cubic  foot,  taking  fifty  per  cent  less  space  than  by  the  old  method. 

Cotton  is  cultivated  between  40°  north  and  south  latitude  corre- 
sponding to  the  isotherm  of  60°  F.     In  the  United  States  37°  marks 


FIG.  40— COTTON  MAP,  SHOWING  PRINCIPAL  PRODUCING  REGIONS  AND  MANUFACTURING 
DISTRICTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 
■■■  Producing  area.  MM^  Manufacturing  area. 

about  the  northern  limit  of  profitable  cultivation.  The  original  source 
of  cotton  brought  to  Europe  was  India.  When  Columbus  landed  in 
the  West  Indies  the  natives  gave  him  cotton  yarn  and  thread.  The 
Spaniards  found  the  natives  of  Mexico  and  Peru  manufacturing  cloth- 
ing from  cotton. 

The  United  States  produced  during  the  last  decade  about  twice  as 
much  cotton  as  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  India  follows  with  less  than 
one  fourth  that  of  the  United  States ;  China  and  Egypt  with  about  one- 
half  that  of  India.  Russian-iVsia,  Japan,  Brazil,  Peru,  Mexico,  and 
other  countries  produce  it  in  less  quantities. 


COTTON. 


Distance  from  the  sea,  the  height  above  the  sea  level,  temperature, 
amount  of  moisture,  and  the  character  of  the  soil  in  any  region  where 
cotton  is  grown,  all  affect  the  quality  of  the  cotton.  The  plant  may  be 
an  herb,  a  shrub,  or  a  tree.  The  finest  variety  is  Sea  Island  cotton,  so 
called  because  it  was  originally  grown  on  the  islands  along  the  coast  of 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  If  allowed  it  would  reach  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  in  height.  It  is  grown  every  year  from  seed  and  only  allowed  to 
reach  two  or  three  feet.  It  produces  the  longest  and  finest  staples,  or 
fibres,  ranging  from  one  and  three  eighths  to  one  and  three  fourths 
inches.  It  is  largely  used  for  thread  and  lace-making.  The  variety 
which  is  cultivated  in  the  interior 
and  higher  lands  of  the  United 
States  is  called  ''Uplands."  It 
has  a  white  flower  and  is  grown 
over  a  larger  area  than  any  other 
cotton.  Its  fibres  are  three  fourths 
to  one  inch  in  length  and  it  is 
known  in  European  markets  as 
''American"  cotton.  Rough  Pe- 
ruvian cotton  is  well  adapted  for 
use  in  manufacturing  hosiery, 
underwear,  and  cloth.  Its  fibres 
are  one  and  three  eighths  to  one 
and  one  half  inches  in  length 
and  so  much  like  wool  as  to 
make  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
them.  Egyptian  cotton  is  used 
to  make  fine  underwear  and  hosiery  such  as  balbriggan,  and  also  for 
sewing  cotton. 

In  the  United  States  cotton  is  found  mainly  in  the  southeastern 
part — North  Carolina,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Tennessee.  There  were 
about  twenty-three  and  one  half  million  acres  devoted  to  cotton  in  the 
United  States  with  an  output  of  eleven  million  bales  of  five  hundred 
pounds  each  in  1899,  and  nine  million  bales  in  1900,  and  of  this  great 
quantity  more  than  one  fourth  was  grown  in  Texas. 


1 

- 

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. 

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T 

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(ASIA)     1 

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1 

N 

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K 

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r;e 

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i 

AFRICA 

IE 

G 

Yip 

T 

1  BRAZIL 

-. 

— 

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•r^A-Ti.ts 

FIG.     41.— WORLD'S    COTTON     PRODUCTION     IN 
1899—15  733  000  BALES. 
Each  square  =  5i  of  i*. 


84 


RAW  MATERIALS   OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 


Brazil  is  an  ideal  cotton  growing  country,  but  owing  to  the  lax 
methods  of  transportation  and  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  country 
they  have  not  succeeded  in  producing  a  large  crop.  Russian-Asia  is 
rapidly  developing  as  a  cotton  growing  country;  modern  methods  are 
being  introduced  and  the  cotton  belt  throughout  that  country  is  being 
rapidly  developed  by  the  Trans-Caspian  Railroad.  Its  product  is 
largely  consumed  by  the  Russian  textile  industry. 

In  India  the  seed  is  scattered  broadcast  in  sowing  and  not  planted 
in  rows  as  in  the  United  States.  Indian  methods  are  antiquated;  no 
fertilizers  are  used,  oxen  are  employed  for  all  purposes,  and  almost 

everything  is  done  by  hand.    In 

Egypt  irrigation  is  largely  used, 
producing  larger  crops  per  acre 
than  in  the  United  States.  The 
whole  crop  is  raised  in  the  delta 
of  the  Nile  and  is  sold  mainly 
in  Europe. 

The  exports  of  raw  cotton 
from  the  United  States  in  1900 
amounted  in  value  to  $241  000- 
000,  of  which  Europe  bought 
about  $222000000  worth  dis- 
tributed as  follows  : — United 
Kingdom  $90  000  000,  Germany 
$63  000  000,  France  %2'j  000000, 
and  other  European  countries 
$43  000  000.  Japan  bought 
$12000000  worth,  which  was 
more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world  outside  of  Europe.  During  the 
war  of  1861-65  English  manufacturers  being  unable  to  secure  cotton 
from  the  United  States,  sought  other  markets  and  developed  its  cul- 
ture in  Egypt  and  in  India.  The  production  in  these  countries, 
however,  has  not  increased  as  in  the  United  States. 

Cotton  production  and  cotton  exports  have  more  than  doubled  in 
the  United  States  since  1870  while  the  price  is  about  one  third  of  what 
it  was  at  that  time.     If  it  were  not  for  the  profits  derived  from  its 


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FIG.  42.— PRODUCTION  AND  EXPORTS  OF  COTTON 
UNITED  STATES  IN  HUNDREDS  OFTHOUSANDS 
OF  BALES.     1860-1900. 

Production. 

_  Exports. 


FLAX.  86 

by-products — cotton  seed,  cotton  seed  oil,  oil  cake,  etc.,  its  cultivation 
could  not  be  carried  on  profitably.  While  the  United  States  exports 
immense  quantities  of  raw  cotton,  it  also  imported  nearly  $8  coo  ooo 
worth  in  1900  mainly  from  Egypt.  This  is  done  because  these  for- 
eig:n  cottons  can  be  used  to  manufacture  lines  of  goods  such  as 
hosiery,  for  which  American  cotton  is  either  not  so  suitable  or  else, 
as  is  the  case  with  Sea  Island  cotton,  is  too  expensive.  The  Peru- 
vian cotton  imported  is  rarely  sold  to  a  cotton  mill,  but  to  the  woolen 
manufacturer  to  mix  with  wool  in  making-  heavy  cloths. 

Of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  about  one  third  is  con- 
sumed at  home,  one  third  by  the  United  Kingdom,  and  one  third  by  all 
the  rest  of  the  world.  While  the  United  States  consumes  a  little  more 
cotton  than  United  Kingdom,  the  value  of  its  product  is  not  so  great 
because  England  makes  more  of  the  finer  grade  of  goods.  Large 
amounts  of  cotton  are  shipped  to  Europe  from  Boston  and  New  York, 
but  two  thirds  of  all  the  cotton  exported  goes  from  Southern  ports. 
New  Orleans  in  1900  ranking  first  and  Galveston  second  in  the  value  of 
exports  of  raw  cotton. 

Bast  Fibres. 

FLAX. 

Flax  (Linum  usitatissimum)  is  next  to  cotton  the  most  useful  and 
valuable  of  all  commercial  fibres.  The  flax  plant  is  a  small  annual 
about  two  feet  high  with  terminal  blue  flowers.  The  stalks  con- 
sist of  a  woody  part,  or  ''boon,"  covered  by  a  fibrous  tissue,  or 
bast  fibre.  As  the  seeds  ripen  the  plants  are  pulled  up  by  the  roots, 
and  are  then  ''rippled,"  or  pulled  through  the  hands  or  an  iron  comb 
to  separate  the  seeds  which  are  used  to  make  linseed  oil  or  oil  cake. 
The  fibres  are  separated  from  each  other  by  "water  retting" — soaking 
the  stem  in  soft  water  to  rot  or  ferment  it,  or  by  "dew  retting"  on  moist 
meadows  exposed  to  the  air,  sun,  night  dews,  and  rains.  This  dissolves 
the  vegetable  glue,  or  sap,  and  loosens  the  fibres  from  the  boon.  They 
are  dried  and  then  broken,  or  "scutched,"  with  a  heavy  wx^den  instru- 
ment which  completes  the  separation  from  the  woody  part.  The  fibres 
are  then  taken  to  the  mill  where  they  are  "hackled,"  or  combed,  to 


86  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

separate  the  long  fibres,  or  "line,"  from  the  short  fibres,  or  "tow,"  and 
the  "line"  is  prepared  for  the  spinners. 

Flax  has  a  wide  geographical  range;  it  is  found  in  Russia  near 
the  Arctic  circle  and  in  India  near  the  equator.  It  is  cultivated  in  all 
European  countries  and  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Mexico,  Argen- 
tina, Egypt,  and  India.  Outside  of  Europe  it  is  cultivated  mainly  for 
the  seed.  There  has  been  an  increase  of  fifty  per  cent  in  the  world's 
production  of  flax  since  1885.  This  increase  has  been  mainly  in  Russia 
which  raises  more  than  one  half  the  world's  crop.  In  Ireland  the  culti- 
vation of  flax  has  decreased. 

The  large  amount  of  hand  labor  required  in  the  preparation  of 
flax  tends  to  confine  its  extensive  culture  for  that  purpose  to  countries 
where  labor  is  cheap.  The  finest  flax  in  the  world  is  "Courtrai  flax" 
from  west  Belgium.  It  is  said  to  owe  its  fine  quality  to  the  soft,  slow- 
running  water  of  the  river  Lys  in  which  it  is  retted.  Russian  flax  which 
is  generally  dew-retted,  is  of  a  poorer  quality.  French  flax  is  some- 
times sent  to  the  Lys  River  to  be  retted  when  a  fine  grade  of  flax  is 
required.  Russia,  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Germany  are  the 
principal  exporting  countries.  The  United  Kingdom  imports  more 
flax  than  any  other  country,  about  $15000000  worth  annually.  The 
United  States  imported  about  $1  600000  worth  in  1900,  mainly  from 
Europe  with  some  from  Canada.  The  cultivation  of  flax  for  fibre  has 
already  begun  to  attract  some  attention  in  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  temperature  and  humidity  being  about  the 
same  as  Ireland  and  Belgium  where  flax  for  fibre  is  successfully  raised. 

HEMP.  ^.^^ 

Common  hemp  (Cannabis  sativa)  is  an  annual  belonging  to  the 
same  natural  order  as  the  nettle.  It  varies  in  size  from  three  to  ten 
feet  and  has  green  flowers.  The  seeds  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
oil  and  for  feeding  small  birds.  The  stem  is  hollow  or  filled  with  a  soft 
pulp  around  which  is  a  woody  substance,  and  outside  of  that  is  the  bark, 
or  bast  fibre,  covered  with  a  thin  outer  skin.  When  grown  for  the  fibre, 
the  stalks  are  not  cut  but  pulled  out  by  the  roots.  They  are  then 
stripped  of  their  flowers  and  leaves,  tied  in  bundles,  and  sent  to  be 
**retted"  at  once.  They  are  afterwards  "scutched"  and  ''hackled"  in  the 
same  manner  as  flax.    Hemp  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  India  where  it  is 


JUTE,  87 

cultivated  in  order  to  obtain  a  resinous  juice  called  charas  which  is  an 
intoxicating-  drug-.     This  is  called  "hasheesh"  in  Arabia. 

Hemp,  like  flax,  has  a  wide  geographical  range  and  is  found  in 
almost  the  same  countries ;  Asia,  Japan,  China,  India,  Siberia,  Russia, 
and  Arabia,  all  raise  hemp.  In  Europe  it  is  chiefly  grown  in  France, 
Italy,  Hungary,  and  in  central  and  southern  Russia  and  Germany.  In 
North  America  it  may  be  grown  from  the  Gulf  to  Canada  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific ;  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  California  are 
the  most  important  hemp-producing  states. 

Russia  raises  more  hemp  for  fibre  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  is  followed  by  Italy  which  raises  the  finest  quality  of  hemp.  For- 
merly the  United  States  raised  large  quantities,  but  the  introduction  of 
jute  bags  and  still  later  of  manila  and  sisal  hemp  has  lessened  the 
demand  for  the  home  product  and  reduced  the  value  of  imported  hemp 
from  $7  ooo  coo  in  1890  to  $450  000  in  1900.  Russia  and  Italy  are  the 
largest  exporting  countries.  The  United  Kingdom  imported  $16  500000 
worth  of  hemp  in  1900,  which  is  more  than  any  other  country  ;  this 
includes  manila  hemp  which  constitutes  about  one  third  of  this  amount. 

Hemp  is  the  standard  among  fibres  for  strength  and  durability, 
and  is  used  in  the  United  States  largely  for  the  manufacture  of  small 
twines  and  cordages,  and  for  binding  twine.  When  these  are  made  of 
jute  the  color  of  hemp  is  often  imitated. 

JUTE. 

Jute  (Corchorus  capsularis  and  C.  olitorius)  is  an  annual  plant  of 
the  linden  tree  order.  It  grows  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  high,  has  a  stalk 
as  thick  as  a  man's  finger,  and  bears  flowers  of  a  whitish  yellow  color. 
Jute  is  cultivated  mainly  for  its  fibre,  which  is  obtained  from  the  inner 
bark  and  is  separated  by  retting  in  the  same  manner  as  flax  and  hemp. 
It  is  cultivated  largely  in  northern  and  eastern  Bengal  where  it  has  the 
advantage  of  a  hot,  moist  climate  and  the  rich  alluvial  soil  of  the  Ganges 
basin.  The  annual  crop  is  about  six  million  bales  of  400  pounds  each. 
Its  cultivation  has  been  attempted  in  the  United  States  but  has  not  been 
commercially  successful. 

Jute  has  long  been  manufactured  by  the  Hindoo  weaver  into  gunny 
cloth  for  wrapping  bales  of  wool  and  cotton  and  for  the  manufacture  of 


68  RA  W  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

gunny  bags  for  grain,  seed,  and  salt.  Calcutta  is  the  centre  of  the 
industry,  having  introduced  European  factory  methods.  The  Crimean 
war,  1854-56,  cut  off  the  supply  of  hemp  and  flax  which  had  previously 
come  from  Russia,  and  led  the  Dundee  manufacturers  to  adopt  jute  as 
a  substitute.  Its  manufacture  is  now  a  large  industry  and  has  been 
started  in  other  cities  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States. 

The  value  of  the  export  of  jute  from  India  in  1900  was  about 
$35000000,  and  of  the  jute  manufactures  $26000000.  The  largest 
jute-importing  countries  are  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United 
States,  the  former  importing  $18000000  of  jute  and  $7500000 
of  jute  manufactures  annually.  The  United  States  imports  $4  000  000 
worth  of  jute  and  $1  300000  of  gunny  bags  from  India,  besides  $10- 
600000  of  jute  fabrics  of  which  one  half  comes  from  India  and  nearly 
one  half  from  the  United  Kingdom.  Jute  is  used  to  weave  into  coarse 
fabrics  like  webbing,  burlap,  and  bagging  stuffs,  and  into  fine  fabrics 
such  as  curtains,  upholstery,  and  carpets.  It  is  also  made  into  twines, 
cordage,  and  binding  twine,  for  none  of  which  is  it  so  well  suited  as 
hemp.  The  jute  butts,  or  rejections,  which  constitute  about  one  third 
of  the  imports  of  jute  into  the  United  States,  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper. 

RAMIE. 

China  grass  (Boehmeria  nivea),  and  ramie,  or  rhea,  (Boehmeria 
tenacissima)  are  two  species  of  stingless  nettles,  natives  of  China  and 
India.  The  plant  is  a  perennial  shrub  growing  from  four  to  eight  feet 
in  height.  In  China  the  stalks,  after  being  cut  and  stripped  of  leaves, 
are  scraped  and  the  bast  fibres  extracted  in  small  ribbons.  These  arc 
washed  in  lye  water  to  separate  them  from  the  gummy  substance. 
Machines  for  decorticating  ramie  stalks  and  separating  the  fibres  from 
the  gummy  substance  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  and  America 
but  they  have  not  been  fully  developed.  The  plants  are  found  in  India, 
Japan,  China,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  have  been  introduced 
into  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  The  Southern  and 
Pacific  Coast  States  of  the  United  States  have  been  successful  in  their 
cultivation  although  not  in  a  commercial  sense.  The  fibres  are  three 
times  as  strong  as  hemp  and  therefore  well  suited  for  cordage.  The 
fibres  can  be  spun  on  any  textile  machinery,  and  laces,  curtains,  carpets, 


SISAL  HEMP.  89 

and  clothing  material  have  been  made  from  it.  The  fact  that  it  can  be 
dyed  in  all  desirable  shades  and  colors,  some  having  the  luster  and 
brilliancy  of  silk,  adds  to  its  value.  As  it  is  easy  of  cultivation  its  use 
will  grow  rapidly  when  machines  for  separating  the  fibre  from  the 
gummy  substance  are  fully  developed. 

Structural  Fibres. 
MANILA  HEMP. 

Manila  hemp  is  the  name  given  to  the  fibres  of  the  abaca,  or  wild 
plantam,  a  species  of  banana  cultivated  chiefly  on  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  fibrous  leaf  stalks  making  up  the  trunk  of  the  tree  when  stripped 
off  are  left  to  dry,  and  are  then  divided  into  strips  three  inches  wide 
and  sometimes  six  to  nine  feet  long.  These  strips  are  scraped  until 
only  the  fibres  remain  when  the  bundles  of  fibres  may  be  shaken  into 
separate  threads.  It  is  then  ready  for  manufacture  into  cordage.  It 
is  more  difficult  to  work  and  more  brittle  than  hemp,  but  rope  made 
from  it  has  greater  tenacity.  The  finer  fibres  from  the  inner  part  are 
pounded  with  a  wooden  mallet  and  hackled  like  flax,  after  which  it  is 
woven  into  numerous  fabrics.  In  the  United  States  manila  hemp  is 
used  mainly  for  cordage  and  twine.  In  France  the  finer  grades  are 
made  into  veils,  crepes,  handkerchiefs,  robes,  and  hats.  Manila  paper 
is  made  from  old  manila  rope. 

The  exports  of  manila  hemp  from  the  Philippines  amounts  to 
about  $20  ooo  GOO  annually,  of  which  one  third  is  sent  to  the  United 
States  and  one  half  to  the  United  Kingdom. 

SISAL  HEMP. 

Sisal  hemp,  or  henequen,  is  obtained  from  tne  thick  fleshy  leaves 
of  the  agave  plant  (Agave  sisalina),  a  native  of  Yucatan  but  found  in 
other  parts  of  Mexico,  in  Central  America,  and  in  the  West  Indies, 
The  leaves  grow  from  four  to  five  feet  in  length  and  weigh  from  one  to 
two  pounds.  A  similar  fibre  is  also  obtained  from  other  agaves.  The 
fibres  are  separated  from  the  fleshy  part  by  machines.  It  does  not 
require  retting,  and  when  properly  cleaned  it  dries  white  as  it  comes 
from  the  machine.    It  is  largely  used  for  cordage  being  second  only  to 


90  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

manila  hemp  in  strength.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sacks. 
The  Mexican  exportation  amounts  to  about  80  000  tons,  mainly  to  the 
United  States.  The  imports  into  the  United  States  amounted  to  more 
than  $11  000000  in  value  in  1900,  which  was  three  times  as  much  as 
in  1890  and  more  than  the  imports  of  manila  and  jute  combined. 

Among  other  fibres  of  minor  importance  are  Istle  or  Tampico 
fibre  from  Mexico,  which  is  stiff  and  bristle-like  and  is  obtained  from 
the  leaves  of  an  agave ;  Broom  root,  or  Mexican  whisk,  is  made  out  of 
the  roots  of  a  grass  about  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  about 
nine  to  twelve  inches  long ;  Piassava  fibres  from  the  hairy  beard  of  the 
stem  of  several  varieties  of  Brazilian  palms ;  Coir  fibre  obtained  from 
the  cocoanut  husk  and  imported  from  the  East  Indies ;  all  of  these  are 
used  for  making  brooms  and  brushes.  Coir  fibre  is  also  made  into  mats 
and  carpets.  New  Zealand  flax  is  made  into  cordage.  Crin  vegetal, 
or  African  palm  leaf,  fibre  is  used  in  upholstery  for  mattresses,  etc. 
Esparto  grass  comes  from  Algeria  and  Spain,  and  is  used  for  making 
paper.  Cuba  bast  is  used  for  making  women's  hats  and  millinery,  and 
also  for  tying  bundles  of  cigars.  Broom  corn  is  entirely  a  domestic 
product,  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  world's  consumption  of  30000 
tons  being  supplied  by  four  counties  in  the  state  of  Illinois. 

The  total  imports  of  unmanufactured  fibres  other  than  cotton 
amounted  to  $26  000  000  in  1900,  and  manufactures  thereof  to  $31  000- 
000. 

Vegetable  Oils,  Oil  Seeds,  and  Oil  Cakes. 

The  oils  obtained  from  plants  are  divided  into  fixed,  or  expressed, 
oils  and  volatile,  or  essential,  oils.  Fixed,  or  expressed,  oils  are  obtained 
by  pressure  from  the  fruits  or  seeds  of  plants ;  the  most  important  are 
olive  oil,  linseed  oil,  palm  oil,  cocoa-nut  oil,  pea-nut  oil,  cottonseed 
oil,  and  corn  oil. 

Fixed  Oils. 
t(  OLIVE  OIL. 

Olive  oil  is  obtained  from  both  the  pulp  and  the  seeds  of  the  fruit 
of  the  olive  tree  (Olea  europoea).     It  is  an  evergreen  of  the  lilac  order 


OIL.  91 

growing  from  twenty  to  twenty  five  feet  in  height.  It  originally  came 
from  western  Asia  but  is  now  raised  in  all  countries  of  southern  Europe, 
northern  Africa,  in  Mexico,  in  South  America,  and  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. The  pulp  is  put  into  coarse  bags  and  the  oil  is  pressed  out 
by  the  use  of  oil  presses.  Olive  oil  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  vegetable 
oils  used  as  a  food.  In  Europe  it  is  largely  used  in  cooking  and  is  eaten 
instead  of  butter.  Italy  produces  and  exports  more  oilve  oil  than  any 
other  country,  the  exports  amounted  to  over  $12000000  in  1899. 
France  produces  the  best  oil  but  imports  largely  from  Italy  as  it  con- 
sumes more  than  it  produces.  In  1900  the  United  States  imported 
about  $1  000  000  worth  of  olive  oil,  almost  all  of  which  came  from  Italy 
and  France.  It  is  used  as  a  dressing  for  salad,  for  lighting,  in  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  cloth  as  a  dressing,  and  for  making  castile  and 
other  soaps. 

LINSEED  OIL. 

Linseed,  or  flax  seed,  is  the  seed  of  the  flax  plant  and  is  raised 
mainly  for  the  rich  oil  which  it  contains.  In  making  the  oil  the  seeds 
are  ground  or  crushed  and  then  pressed,  either  cold  or  heated,  by  steam. 
More  oil  is  obtained  from  them  when  heated  but  the  cold  pressed  oil  is 
the  best.  The  remains  of  the  seeds  after  the  oil  is  pressed  out  of  them, 
is  made  into  oil  cake  which  is  used  for  feeding  cattle.  British  India, 
Russia,  Argentina,  and  the  United  States  export  large  quantities  of 
seed  to  Europe.  The  United  States  in  1900  exported  $3  500  000  worth 
of  the  seeds,  the  United  Kingdom,  Netherlands,  and  Canada  taking 
nearly  ninety  per  cent  of  it.  Very  little  linseed  oil  is  exported  from 
the  United  States,  but  over  $5  000  000  worth  of  the  oil  cake  and  meal 
was  exported  in  1900,  mainly  to  Europe ;  Belgium,  Netherlands,  and 
the  United  Kingdom  took  about  eighty  per  cent  of  it.  Linseed  oil  has 
the  valuable  property  of  drying  and  becoming  hard  upon  exposure  to 
the  air.  This  makes  it  valuable  for  use  in  mixing  colors  in  painting, 
and  for  making  varnishes.  When  boiled  it  is  called  drying  oil  and  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  printers'  ink  which  is  composed  of  oil  and 
lamp-black.  Linoleum  is  linseed  oil  treated  with  sulphur.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  linoleum  floor  cloth,  which  is  made 
from  ground  cork  and  linoleum  mixed  together  and  pressed  upon 
canvas. 


dd  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

PALM  OIL. 

Palm  oil  is  obtained  from  several  species  of  palm  trees  which  grow 
in  west  Africa.  The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  kernel  of  the  nut  and  is 
imported  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  candles,  and  perfumery. 
The  exports  to  Europe  are  very  large,  the  United  Kingdom  taking 
about  $5  GOO  ooo  worth  annually. 

COCOANUT  OIL. 

Cocoanut  oil  is  obtained  from  the  albumen  of  the  kernels  of  the 
cocoanut  (Cocos  nucifera),  the  substance  of  which  when  dried  is  known 
in  commerce  as  copra.  Copra  is  exported  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
where  the  cocoanut  palm  is  abundant,  and  forms  a  large  part  of  the 
commerce  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Both  the  oil  and  the  copra  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  candles.  European  countries 
import  large  quantities  of  cocoanut  oil,  the  United  Kingdom  taking 
about  $2  500  000  worth  annually.  The  value  of  the  imports  of  cocoa- 
nut  oil  and  butter  into  the  United  States  amounted  to  over  $2  000  000 
in  1900. 

PEANUT  OIL. 

Peanuts  or  groundnuts  are  grown  extensively  in  Africa,-  India 
and  South  America,  In  the  United  States  they  are  raised  principally 
in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee.  In  parts  of  Africa  and 
South  America  they  form  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food.  Over  four 
hundred  million  pounds  of  peanuts  are  imported  into  Europe  from 
Africa  and  India  to  be  expressed  into  oil.  A  bushel  of  peanuts  will 
make  a  gallon  of  oil  when  cold  pressed.  This  oil  is  frequently  used 
as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil  in  France.  It  is  used  most  extensively  in 
the  manufacture  of  soap. 

COTTONSEED  OIL. 

Cottonseed  is  the  most  important  to  the  industries  and  commerce 
of  the  United  States  of  all  the  oilseeds.  The  exports  of  its  products 
exceed  in  value  the  total  imports  and  exports  of  all  other  vegetable  oils 
and  oilseeds.  It  has  not  been  long  since  cottonseed  was  treated  as  a 
waste  product  in  the  cotton  fields  of  the  south.  Now  it  is  looked  upon  as 
the  most  valuable  by-product  without  which  cotton-raising  would  be  3 


OIL, 


93 


unprofitable.  Cottonseed  is  now  worth  thirty  cents  a  bushel  on  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi.  Nearly  four  hundred  million  bushels  are 
produced  annually,  which  is  about  two  thirds  as  much  as  wheat.  In 
production  per  acre  and  in  intrinsic  value  pound  for  pound,  cottonseed 
surpasses  wheat.  It  has  been  found  by  recent  investigation  that  the 
cottonseed  crop  when  fully  and  properly  put  to  such  uses  as  are  known 
for  it,  has  an  intrinsic  value  equal  to  half  that  of  the  cotton  crop.  In  pre- 
paring cottonseed  oil  the  lint  which  adheres  to  the  seeds  is  separated 
from  them  by  fine  gins.  The  seeds  are  then  crushed  and  a  winnowing 
machine  is  afterwards  used  to  separate  the  hulls  from  the  kernel  or 
meat.  The  kernels  are  next  ground  and  made  into  cake.  These  cakes 
are  then  put  into  presses  where  the  oil  is  pressed  out.  If  the  oil  is  to 
be  used  for  industrial  purposes,  the  cakes  are  hot  pressed;  but  oil  for 
table  use  is  always  obtained  by  pressing  the  cold  cake.  The  crude  oil 
is  purged  of  its  impurities  by  the  use  of  caustic  soda  and  powdered 

whiting.     The  refuse   after  the     

oil  is  pressed  out  is  in  the  form 
of  a  cake  as  hard  as  a  board. 
This  is  ground  and  constitutes 
the  oilcake  and  the  oilcake  meal 
of  commerce.  When  the  hulls 
are  separated  from  the  meats  the 
cake  or  meal  is  more  nutritious 
and  valuable  than  when  they  are 
left  with  the  meats.  The  hulls 
are  sometimes  used  for  making 
paper.  The  oilcake  or  meal  is 
used  as  a  food  for  cattle  and  as 
a  fertiHzer.  The  United  States 
produces  and  exports  more  cot- 
ton seed  oil  than  any  other 
country,  Egypt,  India,  China, 
and  Brazil  send  a  consider- 
able quantity  to  European  markets.  The  exports  of  cottonseed  oil 
from  the  United  States  in  1900  amounted  in  value  to  over  $14000000, 
of  which  eighty  per  cent  went  to  Europe.    Mexico  with  seven  per  cent 


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FIG.  43.— UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS  OF  COTTON 
SEED  OIL  AND  COTTON  SEED  OIL  MEAL  1  870- 
1  900  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

»..^_^____  Cottonseed  Oil. 
Cottonseed  Oil  Meal. 


94  J^AW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

was  the  largest  purchaser  outside  of  Europe.  The  largest  amount  of 
cottonseed  oil  is  imported  by  France  where  it  is  said  to  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  ''pure"  olive  oil.  In  Holland  it  is  transformed  into  but- 
terine  and  margarine.  Large  quantities  are  also  used  in  Europe  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap.  In  Maine  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  is 
used  for  packing  sardines.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  morocco 
leather  and  woolen  cloth,  and  for  lubricating  machinery.  In  St.  Louis, 
Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  other  packing  centres  there  is  a 
large  demand  for  it,  to  be  converted  into  lard  with  the  aid  of  beef  suet 
and  often  without  any  assistance  from  the  hog.  Although  used  for  an 
adulterant,  it  has  been  for  years  a  growing  source  of  national  wealth. 
The  exports  of  cottonseed-oil  cake,  and  oilcake  meal  from  the  United 
States  in  1900  amounted  to  $11  000  000  in  value  nearly  all  of  which 
went  to  Europe.  It  is  imported  largely  by  the  United  Kingdom,  Ger- 
many, Denmark,  and  Holland  to  be  used  as  a  food  for  cattle  and  as  a 
fertilizer.  There  is  very  little  export  of  cottonseed,  the  American  pro- 
ducts from  it  being  preferred  to  those  made  in  European  countries. 

CORN  OIL. 

In  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  glucose  and  some  varieties 
of  maize  meal,  the  germ  of  the  grain,  which  contains  the  larger  per- 
centage of  oil,  is  extracted.  From  this  germ  a  valuable  oil  is  expressed, 
while  the  residue  forms  a  food  material  as  valuable  in  every  respect 
as  that  derived  by  the  expression  of  the  oil  from  the  ordinary  oily  seeds. 
This  oil  has  been  used  to  some  extent  as  a  salad  oil ;  it  is  also  used  for 
lubricating  delicate  machinery,  as  a  lamp  oil,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
paint.  The  coarser  and  less  fine  oil  makes  a  valuable  soap.  About 
sixteen  thousand  barrels  of  corn  oil  are  made  annually,  of  which  seventy 
per  cent  is  sent  out  of  the  country.  In  1900,  $1  350000  worth  of  corn 
oil  was  exported  almost  entirely  to  Europe.  Belgium  and  the  United 
Kingdom  were  the  largest  purchasers. 

Essential,  or  Volatile,  Oils. 

The  essential  or  volatile  oils  are  generally  obtained  by  distillation 
from  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  plants,  though  they  are  sometimes  ob- 
tained from  the  wood,  bark,  and  other  parts  of  plants.    They  give  ofif 


(^-v^'  OF  T vie. 
UNlVERSiTY 

vapor  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water.  The  essential  oils  are  very 
numerous.  The  most  important  of  those  imported  are  oil  of  lavender, 
oil  of  bergamot,  and  attar  of  roses;  of  those  exported,  oil  of  pepper- 
mint and  oil  of  turpentine. 

toil  of  lavender  is  distilled  from  the  flower  heads  of  lavender  plants 
is  obtained  from  France,  Germany,  and  England. 
Oil  of  bergamot  is  distilled  from  the  rind  of  a  fragrant  orange 
and  is  largely  manufactured  in  Sicily. 

Attar  of  roses  is  distilled  from  the  flowers  of  several  species  of 
roses ;  three  thousand  pounds  of  rose  leaves  produce  only  an  ounce  of 
attar.  Its  manufacture  is  carried  on  largely  in  European  Turkey  and 
in  Oriental  countries. 

Oil  of  peppermint  is  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  an  aromatic  mint. 
The  United  States  and  Japan  produce  the  largest  quantities  for  com- 
merce. About  $100000  worth  is  exported  annually  from  the  United 
States. 

Oil  of  Turpentine. — The  best  known  and  most  important  commer- 
cially of  all  the  essential  oils  is  the  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  produced  on 
a  commercial  scale  by  Austria,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Russia, 
India,  and  the  United  States.  It  is  obtained  from  several  species  of 
pines,  spruces,  and  larches.  In  the  United  States  it  is  chiefly  obtained 
from  the  long-leafed  pine.  The  turpentine  farm  generally  contains  ten 
thousand  or  more  acres  and  consists  of  a  forest  of  pine  trees  cut  or 
scarred  so  that  the  sap  can  ooze  out.  They  are  found  from  North  Caro- 
lina to  Louisiana  within  one  hundred  miles  of  the  coast.  Georgia  and 
Alabama  are  at  present  the  largest  producing  states;  Brunswick  and 
Savannah  the  most  important  shipping  points. 

At  the  foot  of  each  scar  a  hole  or  box  is  cut  into  the  tree  so  that 
the  sap,  as  it  oozes  out,  will  run  into  it.  This  forms  a  gum,  which  is 
scooped  out,  put  into  a  barrel,  and  taken  to  the  distillery.  Eight  barrels 
of  gum  make  two  of  turpentine,  and  what  remains  is  rosin.  At  the  dis- 
tillery the  gum  is  mixed  with  water  and  then  put  into  a  kettle  over  a 
furnace.  As  the  gum  melts,  the  turpentine  passes  in  the  form  of  vapor 
through  pipes  which  are  kept  cold  by  running  water  over  them.  The 
vapor  condenses  as  it  passes  through  these  pipes  and  flows  out  as  a 


96  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

liquid  white  spirit  of  turpentine.  It  is  then  run  into  barrels  and  for- 
warded to  the  nearest  shipping  point. 

The  turpentine  produced  from  the  larch,  the  fir,  and  the  balsam  is 
known  as  "fine"  turpentine ;  that  from  the  pine  and  the  spruce,  "com- 
mon." It  is  used  principally  to  dissolve  resins  and  rubber,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  paints  and  varnishes ;  it  is  also  used  for  cleaning  and  in 
medicine  as  a  solvent. 

The  United  States  supplies  the  bulk  of  the  world's  demand  for 
turpentine  and  its  exportation  is  increasing.  In  1900  over  $8  000  000 
worth  was  exported,  eighty  five  per  cent  of  which  went  to  Europe; 
the  United  Kingdom  alone  took  nearly  half  of  it.  In  the  statistics  of 
our  government  turpentine  is  included  under  the  head  of  "naval  stores" 
and  not  under  "oils." 


Gums,  Gum-Resins,  Resins  and  Rubbers. 

Gums. 

Gums  are  soluble  in  water  and  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  essential 
oils.  They  are  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  silks,  crepes,  and 
muslins  to  stiffen  the  fabric,  and  in  calico  printing  to  stiffen  the  cloth 
before  the  colors  are  applied  so  as  to  prevent  the  running  of  the  colors. 
They  are  also  used  as  medicines  and  sometimes  in  their  native  countries 
as  food. 

Gum  arable  is  obtained  from  several  species  of  acacia  which 
flourish  in  the  hottest  parts  of  Arabia  and  Africa. 

Gum  seneg'al  is  of  an  inferior  quality  and  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
Sudan  and  Senegal. 

Gum  tragacanth  is  obtained  from  a  prickly  shrub  of  the  pea  order 
found  in  Asia  Minor  and  largely  exported  from  Smyrna. 

Gum-Resins. 

Myrrh,  frankincense  or  olibanum,  and  benzoin  are  the  best  known 
fragrant  gum-resins;  they  are  all  largely  used  for  incense  and  per- 
fumery. The  first  two  come  from  Arabia  and  tropical  eastern  Africa ; 
Benzoin  comes  from  Siam,  Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra. 


GUMS,  GUM-RESINS,  RESINS  AND  RUBBERS.  97 

Assafoetida,  the  best  known  of  the  foetid  gum-resins,  comes  from 
Persia  and  Afghanistan  and  is  largely  used  as  a  medicine. 

Resins  or  Oleo-Resins. 

Resins  or  oleo-resins  are  insoluble  in  water  but  are  soluble  in  alco- 
hol and  the  essential  oils. 

The  most  important  of  these  commercially  is  the  resin  of  coniferous 
trees,  or  crude  turpentine,  from  which  by  distillation  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine are  obtained,  the  residue  left  after  distillation  being  the  rosin  of 
commerce  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  varnish,  sealing  wax, 
putty,  soap,  and  paper.  Pitch  is  the  residue  after  dry  distillation  of  the 
rosin  in  making  rosin  oil.  Pitch  is  also  obtained  by  boiling  tar  down 
until  it  has  about  one  third  of  its  weight.  Tar  is  produced  by  covering 
the  wood  of  coniferous  trees  in  a  pit  and  burning  it  so  that  no  flame  is 
produced.  Creosote,  an  excellent  wood  preservative,  is  made  from  tar. 
Rosin  is  exported  mainly  from  the  United  States  while  tar  and  pitch 
are  exported  from  Russia,  Sweden,  and  other  European  countries  hav- 
ing abundant  cone-bearing  trees.  The  value  of  exports  of  rosin  from 
the  United  States  averages  about  $4  000  000  annually,  of  which  eighty 
per  cent  goes  to  Europe.  The  world's  supply  of  rosin  comes  mainly 
from  this  country. 

These  various  products  of  the  pine  tree  are  known  as  Naval  Stores 
in  the  statistics  of  the  United  States. 

Other  resins  are : — Copal,  under'  which  is  included  a  number  of 
hard  and  fossil  resins  used  in  varnish-making  and  exported  from  west 
Africa,  from  parts  of  South  America,  and  from  the  East  Indies.  Over 
$2  600  000  worth  of  copal  were  imported  into  the  United  States  in  1900. 

Animi  from  Demarara  and  kauri  gum  from  New  Zealand  are  also 
fossil  •  gums — remains  of  former  forests  dug  out  of  the  ground — the 
annual  exports  of  the  latter  being  valued  at  $3  000  000,  of  which  the 
United  States  takes  over  one  half. 

Rubbers. 
Caoutchouc  is  the  name  given  by  the  Indians  on  the  banks  of  the 
Amazon  to  what  is  commonly  called  India  rubber.     The  latter  name 
arose  from  the  fact  that  it  originally  came  to  Europe  from  India  and 
for  many  years  was  used  solely  for  rubbing  out  lead  pencil  marks. 


98 


RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 


Rubber  trees  flourish  between  30°  north  and  30°  south  latitude  in 
a  belt  of  land  about  five  hundred  miles  wide  stretching  around  the  globe. 
,They  are  grown  commercially  in  Brazil,  Bolivia,  Guiana,  Central 
America,  east  and  west  Africa,  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  India,  Aus- 
tralia, Ceylon,  and  Madagascar. 

Caoutchouc  is  the  hardened  milky  juice,  or  latex,  of  a  number  of 
tropical  plants  of  the  fig,  the  breadfruit,  the  oleander,  and  other  orders. 
More  than  half  the  rubber  of  commerce  comes  from  Brazil  where  three 


FIG.  44.— SHOWING  REGIONS  PRODUCING  RUBBER. 


varieties  are  cultivated.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  (Hevea 
brasiliensis,)  or  Seringuiera,  to  which  the  Amazon  valley  owes  its 
present  prosperity.  It  is  found  scattered  through  the  forests  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amazon  river  and  its  tributaries.  It  grows  to  a  height 
of  seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  and  has  a  girth  of  five  to  seven  feet  a 
yard  above  the  ground.  The  extraction  of  the  latex  is  effected  by 
making  an  incision  in  the  bark  of  the  tree,  from  which  the  latex  flows 
for  about  three  or  four  hours.  A  small  cup  with  a  capacity  of  about 
three  or  four  ounces  is  affixed  just  below  it  to  receive  the  latex  as  it 
flows.  This  latex  is  afterwards  collected  and  the  rubber  of  commerce  is 
made  from  it  in  various  ways  ;  it  may  be  done  by  evaporating  the  watery 
part  leaving  solid  caoutchouc.    In  the  Amazon  district  they  light  a  fire 


RUBBERS. 


Upon  the  ground  and  invert  a  funnel  shaped  chimney  over  it  from  the 
narrow  open  end  of  which  the  smoke  and  gas  pour  out  in  a  concentrated 
form.  The  operator  seated  on  a  stool  dips  the  latex  out  of  a  large 
receptacle  with  a  calabash  and  pours  it  over  a  paddle  shaped  stick  which 
he  then  revolves  in  the  smoke  issuing  from  the  chimney  until  it  is  dried, 
when  he  repeats  the  operation  pouring  on  more  latex  and  drying  it  until 
a  ball  or  biscuit  is  formed  of  solid  rubber.  The  wooden  core  is  with- 
drawn through  a  slit  made  in  the  rubber.  Para  rubber  made  in  this  way 
is  the  finest  coming  into  the  markets  of  the  world  as  it  is  not  mixed  with 
foreign  substances. 

In  Africa  and  India  and  other  places  the  whole  tree  is  sometimes 
cut  down  to  obtain  the  milky  secretion.  In  India  the  tree  from  which 
it  is  obtained  is  the  Ficus  elastica,  used  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  this 
country.  In  the  Indian  Archipelago  it  is  obtained  from  a  gigantic 
creeper  which  in  five  years  grows  to  two  hundred  feet  in  length  and 
twenty  to  thirty  inches  in  cir- 
cumference and  produces  fifty 
pounds  a  year. 

The  total  amount  of  rubber 
produced  in  the  world  is  esti- 
:mated  at  one  hundred  and 
twenty  five  million  pounds  an- 
nually, valued  at  $75000000. 

The  amount  of  rubber  con- 
sumed by  various  countries  in 
1900  is  estimated  as  follows: 


United  States  .  .  51  000  000  lbs. 
Germany  ....  18  000  000  lbs. 
United  Kingdom  .  16  000  000  lbs. 

Russia 16  000  000  lbs. 

France 5  000  000  lbs. 

Canada 3  000  000  lbs. 


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FIG.    45.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  CONSUMPTION  OF 
RUBBER  IN  1900    1  25  000  000  POUNDS. 

Each  Square  =  Va,  of  \'i. 


More  than  a  hundred  million  dollars  worth  of  india  rubber  has  been 
imported  into  the  United  States  during  the  past  four  years,  and  more 
than  sixty  million  dollars  worth  in  the  last  two  years.  A  decade  ago  the 


100 


RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 


annual  importation  of  india  rubber  amounted  to  about  $15  000  000 ;  now 
it  exceeds  $30000000,  and  is  steadily  increasing.  Practically  all  the 
rubber  imported  comes  in  a  crude  form  for  the  use  of  manufacturers 
who  are  constantly  extending  its  application  to  various  new  lines  of 
industry.  Northern  Brazil  which  furnishes  more  than  one  half,  south- 
ern Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  Central  Africa,  India,  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, and  the  Dutch  East  Indies  supply  this  increasingly  important 
feature  of  our  importations.  Probably  no  single  article  has  made  in  the 
past  few  years  more  rapid  growth  in  its  relations  to  manufactures 
and  consequently  commerce  than  rubber.  As  a  consequence  attention 
is  now  being  given  to  the  systematic  cultivation  and  systematic  produc- 
tion of  the  various  plants  and  trees  from  which  it  can  be  produced. 
The  fact  that  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America  are  natural  pro- 
ducers of  india  rubber  in  considerable  and  increasing  quantities,  and 
that  large  quantities  are  produced  in  and  exported  from  the  islands  and 
mainland  immediately  adjacent  to  the  Philippines,  suggests  great  pos- 
sibilities in  this  line  in  Cuba,  in  Puerto  Rico,  and  in  the  Hawaiian  and 
Philippine  Islands. 

The  rubber  industry  dates  from  1820  when  Macintosh  produced 
water  proof  garments  by  using  benzine  for  dissolving  rubber.  Good- 
year produced  in  1839  vulcanized  rubber  by  treating  it  with  a  small 

quantity  of  sulphur;  and  later 
he  produced  a  still  harder  com- 
pound called  ebonite  by  treating 
it  with  large  quantities  of  sul- 
phur at  a  higher  temperature 
and  for  a  longer  time.  These 
two  discoveries  extended  the  use 
of  rubber  by  making  it  applic- 
able to  an  immense  number  of 
useful  articles  and  industrial  ap- 
pliances. Shoes,  hose,  surgical 
appliances,  bicycle  and  automo- 
bile tires,  belts  and  other  innum- 
FiG.  46.-IMPORTS  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER  INTO       erable      articles      maniifartnrpfl 

THE   UNITED  STATES   1 886-1 900  IN  MIL-  ^  •      ^^"^^^^         maUUtaCtUrCd 

LIONS  OF  DOLLARS,  irom    it,    crcatc    a   demand    for 


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DYE-STUFFS.  101 

enormous  amounts  of  rubber.  Most  of  the  manufactures  of  rubber  of 
the  United  States  are  consumed  at  home ;  the  exports  in  1900  consisted 
mainly  of  belting,  hose,  boots,  shoes,  packing,  and  tires,  and  amounted 
to  $2  300  000  in  value. 

Gutta-percha  is  obtained  from  the  hardened  juice  of  the  gutta 
plants  belonging  to  the  order  Sapotaceae  which  flourishes  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  trees  are  cut  down  to 
obtain  the  juice  which  is  exported  almost  entirely  from  Singapore. 
The  countries  importing  it  are  England,  France,  Germany,  Holland, 
and  the  United  States.  Gutta-percha  may  be  used  for  many  of  the  same 
purposes  as  rubber.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  non-conductor  of  elec- 
tricity and  is  not  affected  by  being  immersed  in  salt  water,  it  is  used  for 
coating  sub-marine  telegraph  wires.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  without  gutta- 
percha the  laying  of  sub-marine  cables  would  have  been  impossible. 

Dye-Stuffs. 

These  are  obtained  from  different  parts  of  various  plants;  some- 
times from  the  wood,  roots,  or  stem,  and  sometimes  from  the  leaf, 
flower,  or  fruit.  They  are  used  extensively  in  the  dyeing  of  textile  fab- 
rics which,  without  them,  would  be  of  one  dull  uniform  hue.  When 
cloth  is  dipped  in  some  dyes  the  color  will  not  wash  out,  others  need 
something  else  mixed  with  them  which  fastens  the  colors  to  the  threads ; 
these  substances  are  called  mordants,  the  principal  of  which  are  alum, 
salts  of  aluminium,  tin  iron,  and  soda. 

Dye-Wood 

Logwood  is  obtained  from  the  dark  red  heart-wood  of  a  tree  of  the 
bean  order  which  grows  extensively  in  Campeche  and  Honduras,  and 
in  Jamaica,  Haiti,  and  other  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  It  is  imported 
mainly  in  logs  which  are  cut  into  chips  and  sometimes  ground  into 
powder.  It  forms  a  deep  violet  or  purple  hue  when  the  chips  are  boiled 
in  water,  and  by  proper  treatment  this  color  can  be  changed  to  red, 
blue,  brown,  or  black.  It  is  used  largely  in  dyeing  black  and  in  pro- 
ducing all  shades  of  grey.  The  United  States  imports  of  logwood  come 
mainly  from  Haiti  and  the  British  West  Indies. 


102  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  VEGETABLE  ORIGIN. 

Fustic  is  a  yellow  dye  obtained  from  the  wood  of  a  kind  of  mul- 
berry tree  found  in  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies.  It  is  imported  in  long 
sticks  or  logs  from  the  chips  of  which  the  dye  is  obtained  by  boiling. 

Brazil-wood  from  Central  America  and  South  America  gives  a  red 
color. 

Quercitron  is  the  ground  bark  of  a  species  of  oak,  which  produces 
a  yellow  color  and  is  obtained  entirely  from  the  United  States. 

Other  Dye-Stuffs. 

Indigo  is  obtained  from  the  juices  of  several  kinds  of  tropical 
plants  of  the  same  order  as  the  pea  or  bean.  It  is  usually  extracted  by 
fermentation  from  the  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of  the  plants.  These 
plants  are  found  in  almost  all  tropical  countries  but  are  more  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  India  and  Ceylon  than  anywhere  else.  The  total 
production  of  indigo  in  India  in  1900  was  one  hundred  and  eighteen 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  nine  hundred-weight,  nearly  all  of  which 
was  exported,  the  value  being  about  $9  000  000.  The  United  States 
imported  nearly  $1  500  000  worth  in  1900,  of  which  more  than  two 
thirds  came  from  the  East  Indies.  Indigo  is  the  most  important  of  the 
blue  dyes  and  it  is  also  used  to  produce  black.  Artificial  indigo  is  made 
in  Germany  and  is  beginning  to  take  the  place  of  the  natural  product, 
reducing  the  value  of  the  exports  from  India  from  $18  000000  in  1896 
to  $9  000  000  in  1900. 

Madder  is  obtained  from  a  plant  indigenous  to  the  Levant  and  is 
cultivated  in  southern  Europe.  It  is  the  principal  vegetable  red  dye 
and  is  obtained  from  the  root.  Alizarine,  the  bright  crystals  found 
originally  in  madder,  is  now  made  from  anthracine,  a  coal  tar  product. 
This  has  almost  destroyed  the  cultivation  of  madder  in  Europe ;  but  as 
the  madder  dyes  produce  fast  colors,  while  the  coal  tar  alizarine  does 
not,  a  demand  may  arise  for  it.  The  United  States  imports  $700000 
worth  of  alizarine  mainly  from  Germany. 

Annatto  is  a  reddish  yellow  dye  obtained  from  the  pulp  that  sur- 
rounds the  seeds  of  the  annatto  tree.  It  is  obtained  from  both  East 
and  West  Indies.  It  is  used  in  the  dyeing  of  fabrics  and  in  coloring 
butter  and  cheese. 


TANNING  MATERIALS.  103 

There  are  hundreds  of  other  dyes  obtained  from  the  vegetable 
kingdom  but  the  products  of  coal  tar  are  rapidly  taking  their  place. 


Tanning  Materials. 

Tannin,  or  tannic  acid,  consists  of  small  yellow  crystals  obtained 
from  the  bark,  wood,  fruits,  leaves,  etc.,  of  certain  trees.  This  when 
combined  with  the  gelatine  in  the  skins  of  animals,  converts  them  into 
leather. 

Barks: — Oak  bark  is  the  principal  native  tanning  substance  used 
in  England,  the  annual  supply  of  which  is  about  300000  tons.  It  is 
also  imported  into  England  from  Belgium.  It  is  used  mainly  for 
heavy  tanned  leathers  because  it  gives  firmness  and  solidity. 

Hemlock  bark  is  the  principal  native  tanning  material  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  It  is  obtained  by  cutting  down  the  trees,  and  as 
no  provision  is  made  for  their  renewal,  the  hemlock  forests  are  becom- 
ing exhausted ;  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  have  the  most 
important  forests  at  the  present  time.  The  tan  bark  is  the  most 
important  of  the  by-products  of  the  forests.  The  extract  of  hemlock 
is  exported  in  large  quantities,  especially  to  England  and  Germany. 

Wattle  bark,  from  a  species  of  acacia,  is  found  in  Australia  and 
exported  largely  to  England.  Larch  and  fir  barks  are  used  to  tan  sheep 
skins  into  basils.  Willow  bark  is  used  in  Russia  for  tanning  Russia 
leather.  Quebracho  wood  from  the  river  Plata  is  used  largely  in 
France  and  to  some  extent  in  the  United  States.  It  comes  into  the 
market  in  bark  and  in  the  form  of  crystals  which  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  tannin. 

Fruits: — Under  the  head  of  fruits  are  valonia,  myrobolans,  and 
divi-divi  which  are  largely  used  in  Europe  and  America.  Valonia  is 
obtained  from  the  acorn  cups  of  an  oak  indigenous  to  Asia  Minor,  and 
is  shipped  mainly  from  Smyrna.  Myrobolans  are  the  dried,  immature 
fruit,  or  nuts,  larger  than  a  filbert,  and  obtained  from  India.  Divi- 
divi  is  obtained  from  the  pods,  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  of  a  plant  grow- 
ing in  South  America.  These  three  all  contain  a  high  percentage  of 
tannin. 


104  /^AfV  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL   ORIGIN. 

Leaves: — Sumac  is  obtained  largely  from  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries. The  leaves  are  dried  and  ground  to  a  fine  dust  and  contain  from 
twenty  five  to  thirty  per  cent  of  tannic  acid.  American  varieties  are 
found  in  Virginia  and  other  Southern  States,  but  the  percentage  of 
tannin  is  not  as  high  as  in  the  European  varieties.  About  $228  000 
worth  was  imported  in  1900. 

Extracts: — Cutch  is  extracted  by  evaporation  from  the  chopped 
wood  of  a  tree  growing  in  India  and  Burma.  Gambier  is  extracted 
from  the  leaves  of  a  shrub  of  the  cinchona  family,  a  native  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  The  United  States  imports  nearly  a  million  dollars  worth 
of  these  two  extracts  annually. 

Galls: — Nut-galls  are  excrescences  formed  in  the  leaves  and  leaf- 
stalks of  some  species  of  oaks  by  the  puncture  of  insects.  They  are 
obtained  largely  from  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  southeast  and  south  of 
Europe.  They  contain  a  very  large  percentage  of  tannin  but  are  too 
expensive  for  extensive  use  by  the  tanner.  They  are  used  by  the  calico 
printer  and  in  the  manufacture  of  inks.  Many  of  the  other  tanning 
materials  are  also  used  for  dyeing. 

RAW  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 
WOOL. 

Wool  is  generally  understood  to  refer  to  the  fleeces  of  sheep;  it 
also  includes  the  hair  of  the  Angora,  Cashmere,  and  other  goats,  the 
fleeces  of  the  alpaca,  the  vicuna,  the  llama,  and  the  covering  of  camels 
and  some  other  animals. 

Wool  differs  from  hair  in  three  ways: 

1st.  Hair  is  straight,  wool  is  curly  or  crimped.  The  curliness  of 
the  fibre  of  wool  causes  it,  when  drawn  out,  to  be  greatly  lengthened ; 
when  the  strain  is  removed,  it  returns  to  its  original  length.  It  is  the 
springiness  due  to  this  that  gives  to  wool  fabrics  the  elasticity  which 
distinguishes  them  from  cotton,  linen,  and  other  fibres. 

2d.     Hair  is  hard  and  crisp,  wool  is  soft. 

3d.  Hair  is  smooth,  wool  is  corrugated,  and  under  the  microscope 
the  fibres  seem  to  be  made  of  little  sawlike  teeth  or  scales  overlapping 
each  other  like  slates  on  the  roof  and  sticking  out  wherever  it  bends. 
These  scales  are  very  small — 3000  in  an  inch — but  without  them  the 


tVOOL. 


105 


wool  would  not  spin  or  felt.  The  deeper  these  scales  or  teeth  fit  each 
other  the  closer  the  structure  of  the  thread  and  consequently  of  the 
cloth  made  from  it.  This  gives  wool  its  characteristic  quality  of  felt- 
ing— that  is,  of  becoming  matted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  capable  of 
being  made  into  cloth  without  weaving,  but  merely  by  rolling,  beating, 
and  pressing  together.  This  was  probably  the  primitive  method  of 
making  cloth  out  of  wool. 

Wools  are  divided  into  three  classes  :  short,  long,  and  coarse 
Short  staple  wools  are  used  in  cloth  manufacture  and  are  called  clothing 
or  carding  wool ;  these  are  generally  from  merino  breeds  of  sheep.    To 


FIG.  47.— SHOWING  REGIONS  PRODUCING  WOOL. 

this  class  belong  the  Saxon  and  Silesian  wools  of  Germany,  most  of 
the  wools  from  Australia  and  Argentina,  from  South  Africa,  Russia, 
Canada,  and  the  bulk  of  the  United  States  wools.  They  vary  in  length 
of  fibre  from  one  to  four  inches. 

Long  staple  wool,  also  called  combing  wool : — To  this  class  belong 
the  Leicester,  Lincolnshire,  Cotswold,  and  other  English  wools;  the 
Cheviot  of  Scotland,  and  the  wools  of  the  north  of  France;  those  of 
western  Australia  and  Canada;  the  combing  wools  of  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  They  may  vary 
in  length  from  four  to  eight  inches.    French  and  Australian  wools  are 


106  J^AlV  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL    ORIGIN. 

the  best  for  women's  dress  goods,  the  Cheviots  for  tweeds,  and  the 
EngHsh  for  worsted  goods  and  for  hosiery. 

/i  To  the  coarse  staple  wools,  which  are  adapted  for  carpets,  belong 
the  Donskoi  from  Russia,  the  native  South  American,  Cordova,  Val- 
paraiso, and  native  Smyrna  wools. 

The  best  wool  of  each  sheep  comes  from  the  shoulders  and  sides. 
The  wool -on  the  sheep  always  contains  grease  and  dirt.  Each  fibre 
has  a  natural  covering  of  grease  known  as  the  yolk,  which  in  the  living 
animal  prevents  the  wool  from  becoming  felted.  Wool  is  sometimes 
scoured  before  being  exported,  but  most  wool  is  exported  in  grease.  It 
is  sometimes  washed  to  get  rid  of  the  dirt,  the  yolk  being  still  retained. 
Wild  sheep  are  found  in  some  of  the  mountains  of  southern  Europe 
and  central  Asia,  but  they  do  not  produce  as  fine  fleeces  as  the  domestic 
animals. 

Among  other  animals  than  sheep  from  which  the  wools  of  com- 
merce are  obtained,  is  the  Angora  goat,  from  the  mountains  near 
Angora  in  Asia  Minor.  Its  color  is  milk  white,  the  hair  is  in  long 
spiral  ringlets.  This  is  known  as  mohair  and  is  exported  from  Smyrna. 
The  Angora  goat  has  also  been  introduced  into  Southern  Africa,  from 
which  there  is  a  large  export.  Some  attempts  to  raise  them  in  the 
United  States  have  also  been  successful.  About  $6  ooo  ooo  worth 
was  exported  to  England  from  Turkey  and  South  Africa,  in  igoo. 

Cashmere  wool  is  obtained  from  the  Cashmere  goat  found  in  the 
high  table-lands  of  Tibet,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Cashmere 
shawls.  This  wool  is  the  fine,  downy  undercovering  which  grows  in 
winter  about  the  roots  of  the  hair  of  this  and  other  animals  in  the 
Himalayan  table-lands. 

Alpaca : — The  llamas  and  alpacas  are  the  camels  of  South  America. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  a  deer  and  have  a  long  silky  fleece.  Most 
of  the  wool  exported  is  black  and  the  rest  brown.  About  a  million 
dollars  worth  annually  is  sent  to  England. 

Camel's  hair : — The  wooly  hair  of  the  camel  is  sometimes  as  fine  as 
silk  and  is  longer  than  sheep's  wool.  It  is  largely  exported  from  the 
northern  ports  of  China,  and  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  shawls  and  other  fabrics,  and  for  painters'  brushes. 


IVOOL. 


107 


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The  world's  total  supply  of  wool  in  igoo  is  estimated  at 
2  685  000  000  pounds.  The  countries  producingf  over  100  000  000 
pounds  are  given  in  the  following  chart : 

Only  three  of  these  coun- 
tries produce  mainly  for  export, 
namely  Australasia,  Argentina, 
and  South  Africa.  Their  popu- 
lation is  so  sparse  that  they  can- 
not consume  the  wool  they  pro- 
duce. In  only  one  part  of  the 
world  is  the  number  of  sheep 
increasing,  namely,  the  river 
Plata  region  including  Argen- 
tina and  Uruguay.  In  Europe 
and  the  United  States  the  multi- 
plication of  small  farms  and  the 
increased  profits  arising  from 
cattle-raising  tend  to  reduce  the 
ratio  of  sheep  to  population. 
Since  1874  the  United  Kingdom 
has  decreased  33  p.  c,  from  11 30  to  750  sheep  per  thousand  of  popula- 
tion; Germany  65  p.  c,  from  580  to  200;  and  the  United  States  37 
p.  c,  from  795  to  500. 

The  climate  best  suited  for  raising  sheep  for  wool  is  one  that  is 
dry  and  equable,  and  free  from  extreme  cold.  The  countries  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean  have  such  a  climate,  and  it  was  in  this  region 
that  the  merino  sheep  originated.  This  sheep  produces  fine  wool  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  in  which  it  can  be  raised.  It  was  first  known  in 
Algeria  and  was  introduced  into  Spain  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  Spanish  wools  were  the  finest,  but  owing  to 
neglect  they  deteriorated,  and  Saxony  into  which  the  merino  was 
introduced  became  celebrated  for  its  "Electoral  wool."  Silesian  wool 
also  from  the  merino  ranks  high. 

In  the  middle  ages  wool  was  the  most  valuable  export  from  Eng- 
land. Down  to  the  introduction  of  cotton  spinning,  the  wool  industry 
was  the  most  important  for  English  trade,  and  it  is  now  second  only  to 


FIG.    48.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  WOOL  PRODUCTION 
IN  1900    2  685  105  01  3  POUNDS. 

Each  square=J<  of  i  i. 


108 


RAW  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL    ORIGIN. 


cotton  in  importance  among  the  imports  and  exports  of  textile  products. 
London  is  still  the  greatest  wool  market  of  the  world ;  about  one  fourth 
of  the  world's  wool  is  imported  into  England  and  about  one  eighth 
exported  from  it.  Of  the  six  hundred  and  fifty  nine  million  pounds 
of  wool  imported,  nearly  two  thirds  is  from  Australasia,  thirteen  per 
cent  from  South  Africa,  five  per  cent  from  India,  and  four  per  cent  from 
South  America  and  France.  Nearly  one  half  of  this  foreign  wool  is 
re-exported  to  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  the  United  States. 
Germany  obtains  its  wool  from  Argentina,  Australasia,  Cape  Colony, 
Great  Britain,  Belgium,  and  Russia.  France  obtains  its  wool  mainly 
from  Argentina,  Australasia,  England,  Uruguay,  Algeria,  and  Turkey. 
Eighty  per  cent  of  the  Australian  wool  is  sent  to  Great  Britain.  Ninety 
per  cent  of  Argentina  wool  is  sent  to  France,  Germany,  and  Belgium. 

Melbourne,  Sydney,  Brisbane, 
Wellington,  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
Cape  Town  have  all  become  im- 
portant wool  ports  exporting  to 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

In  1900  the  United  States 
imported  one  hundred  and  fifty 
five  million  pounds  of  wool;  of 
this  amount  thirty  seven  million 
■pounds  were  first  class,  or  short 
staple  wools  from  Australasia, 
Argentina,  and  re-exported 
wools  from  Great  Britain; twelve 
million  pounds  were  second 
class,  or  long  staple  wools, 
mainly  from  Great  Britain,  Can- 
ada, and  Continental  Europe ; 
and  one  hundred  and  five  million 
pounds  were  third  class,  or  carpet  wools,  from  China,  United  King- 
dom, France,  Germany,  and  other  European  countries.  South  America, 
and  Australasia. 

There  are  no  sheep  native  of  the  United  States.      The  first  sheep 
3vere  brought  to  Jamestown  in  1609.    The  first  merino  sheep  were  sent 


40)50:60i70 

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FIG.    49.- 
IMPORl 
OF  DOl 

UNITED    STATES    PROD 
rS  OF  WOOL  1840-1  900 
-LARS. 
Prnrliiptinn 

UCTION   AND 
IN  MILLIONS 

II 

up 

or 

ts 

UNIVERSITY  I 

to  the  United  States  in  1802  by  the  American  minister  in  Madrid.  The 
wool  production  of  the  United  States  increased  rapidly  until  a  few 
years  ago,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  importation.  There  have  been 
twenty  six  changes  in  the  tariff  since  1816;  it  was  highest  in  1867  and 
continued  to  1883.  In  1893  wool  was  for  the  first  time  put  upon  the 
free  list;  in  1897  a  tariff  was  again  put  on  it.  In  1895  production 
reached  its  maximum — 309  000  000  pounds.  In  1897  importation 
reached  its  maximum — 350000000  pounds,  caused  by  a  rushing  in  of 
wool  to  avoid  the  payment  of  duties  under  the  new  tariff.  The  seeming 
conflict  between  the  interests  of  the  farmers  and  the  manufacturers  has 
caused  the  changes  in  the  wool  tariff  to  be  more  frequent  than  in  any 
other  line  of  goods. 

The  largest  wool  producing  states  in  1900  were  Montana,  Wyom- 
ing, Idaho,  Oregon,  New  Mexico,  Ohio,  Texas,  Utah,  California,  and 
Colorado.  This  is  on  the  basis  of  washed  and  unwashed  wool.  The 
average  weight  of  a  fleece  in  the  United  States  is  6.46  pounds,  ranging 
from  four  pounds  in  some  of  the  Southern  States  to  eight  pounds  in 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Washington,  and  Oregon.  The  merino  sheep  pre- 
vails in  western  New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  western  Pennsylvania, 
Texas,  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  the  Pacific  States.  The  English 
breeds,  Leicesters,  Cotswolds,  and  Lincolns,  are  found  almost  entirely 
in  the  South  except  in  Texas.  The  ranch  flocks  which  are  based  on 
Mexican  breeds  are  the  chief  sources  of  carpet  wools ;  the  coarse  kinds 
of  wool  from  all  grades  of  sheep  also  belong  to  this  class. 

SILK. 

Silk  is  the  fibre,  or  thread,  spun  by  the  silk-worm.  This  insect  is 
the  caterpillar  of  a  kind  of  moth,  Bombyx  mori,  which  feeds  on  the 
leaves  of  mulberry  trees.  The  eggs  which  the  silk  worm  lays,  are 
about  as  large  as  a  mustard  seed  and  are  fastened  in  place  by  a  sticky 
gum.  Each  female  lays  from  three  hundred  to  seven  hundred  eggs. 
These,  if  kept  in  a  cool  dry  place,  can  be  preserved  for  a  long  time  and 
are  exported  in  quantities  from  silk-producing  countries.  When  hatched 
the  attendant  places  the  caterpillar  on  mulberry  leaves  of  which  it  eats 
greedily ;  after  five  weeks  it  stops  eating,  and  spins  its  cocoon  which  is 
made  of  silk  from  its  own  body.    The  outside  of  the  cocoon  is  covered 


110 


J^AlV  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL    ORIGIN, 


with  floss  silk.  The  thread  is  all  in  one  piece  and  about  a  thousand 
feet  long.  The  cocoons  are  taken  from  the  twigs  to  which  they  had 
been  fastened,  and  thrown  into  hot  water  before  the  moth  begins  to 
eat  its  own  way  out.  This  is  called  choking  and  kills  the  moth  inside. 
The  outer  floss  covering  is  then  opened  and  the  cocoon  with  the  fine 
silk  around  it  is  slipped  out.  When  these  cocoons  are  to  be  unwound 
they  are  put  into  a  basin  of  warm  water  which  softens  the  gum  or 
sticky  substance  and  the  end  of  each  single  thread  separated.  As -the 
thread  of  a  single  cocoon  is  too  fine  for  use  in  spinning,  the  threads  of 
several  cocoons  are  united  in  reeling  off  the  fibre.  For  fine  silk  five  or 
six  cocoons  are  used;  for  coarse,  twelve  to  twenty.  The  silk  thus 
obtained  is  of  a  white  or  a  bright  yellow  color ;  it  is  made  up  into  hanks 
and  forms  the  raw  cultivated  silk  of  commerce.  The  other  parts  of  the 
cocoons,  all  the  spoiled  cocoons,  arid  waste  and  broken  fibres  are,  after 
going  through  many  processes,  spun  like  flax  or  cotton,  making  what 

is  called  waste  or  spun  silk. 
These  waste  materials  un- 
der the  name  of  husk  knubs 
are  imported  by  silk-manu- 
facturing countries  to  be 
made  into  silk  goods.  Co- 
coons are  also  exported; 
but  as  one  hundred  pounds 
of  cocoon  make  nine 
pounds  of  raw  silk,  the  lat- 
ter is  the  more  common 
form  for  export. 

Both  the  silk  worm 
and  its  food  plant,  the 
white  mulberry  tree,  are 
native  products  of  Eastern 
Asia.  China  was  the  cradle 
of  silk  in  an  early  age  and 
the  Celestials  prohibited 
the  exportation  of  raw  silk 
or  of  silk-worm  eggs  under  penalty  of  death.  Japan,  India,  and  western 


FIG.  50.— SHOWING  REGIONS  PRODUCING  RAW  SILK. 


SILK. 


Ill 


countries  gradually  developed  seri-culture.  At  the  present  time  the 
world's  production  of  silk  amounts  to  over  35  000  000  pounds,  of  which 
China  produces  41.6  per  cent,  Japan  20.7,  Italy  20,  France  3.8,  Australia 
1.8,  Spain  5,  and  the  Levant  10.  In  China  there  are  but  two  ports 
from  which  silk  is  exported — Shanghai  and  Canton — a  large  part  from 
the  latter  coming  by  way  of  Hong  Kong.  The  best  silk  comes  from 
the  steam  filatures  of  Shanghai. 
Tussah  silk,  which  is  a  wild-silk, 
comes  by  way  of  Chefoo  to 
Shanghai  and  also  from  India. 
Silk  in  the  form  of  cocoons  is 
brought  from  the  interior  to  the 
seaports  where  it  is  reeled.  For- 
merly China  produced  silk 
mainly  for  home  consumption. 
The  silk-manufacturing  industry 
in  China  was  almost  destroyed 
by  the  introduction  of  cotton- 
raising  among  their  people,  as  it 
furnished  a  cheaper  clothing,  but 
the  demand  for  raw  silk  in  west- 
ern countries  has  given  the  silk- 
raising  industry  in  China  a  new 
life.  Japan  is  the  next  largest  producer  of  silk  both  for  home  consump- 
tion and  for  export.  Yokohama  is  the  principal  silk  port.  India's  silk 
industry  has  fallen  off  from  what  it  was  formerly.  Persia,  The  Trans- 
Caucasus,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Russia,  and  Hungary  are  all  silk-raising 
countries.  In  Europe, Italy  is  the  largest  producer.  The  great  plains  of 
Lombardy,  Piedmont,  and  Venetia  are  largely  devoted  to  the  growing 
of  mulberry  trees  for  silk  culture.  France  formerly  exceeded  Italy  in 
the  production  of  silk,  producing  37  p.  c.  of  the  world's  product,  but 
the  ravages  of  disease  almost  destroyed  its  silk  industry.  Pasteur  dis- 
covered that  by  the  microscope  it  was  possible  to  determine  which 
moths  would  lay  healthy  eggs,  and  in  this  way  checked  the  spread  of 
disease.  The  valley  of  the  Rhone  is  now  the  main  silk  district  of 
France.    Attempts  have  been  made  to  raise  the  silk-worm  in  the  United 


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FIG.    52.— WORLD'S   TOTAL  RAW   SILK  SUPPLY  IN 
1900    34  455  000  POUNDS. 
Each  square=5i  of  lii. 


113 


/^AlV  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL    ORIGIN. 


States  and  in  Australia,  and  small  amounts  of  silk  have  been  produced ; 
but  so  much  of  the  work  must  be  done  by  manual  labor,  which  is  expen- 
sive in  these  countries,  that  it  has  not  met  with  the  success  that  has 
attended  it  in  countries  with  the  same  climate  where  labor  is  cheaper. 
The  United  States  and  France  each  consumed  in  1900  about  one 
third  of  the  world's  production  of  silk.  The  quantity  of  silk  consumed 
by  the  United  States  was  a  little  more  than  that  of  France  but  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  French  manufacturers  were  much  more  valuable  than 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  countries  furnishing  silk  to  the  United 
States,  and  their  quantities,  are  as  follows : 

Japan  4  765  000  pounds  $19  688  000 

China 3  854  000  pounds  12  171  000 

Italy 2  217  CXDO  pounds 10  816  000 

France  356  000  pounds  i  607  cxxD 

Other  countries   .  .        67  000  pounds  267  000 


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FIG.  51.— IMPORTS  OF  SILK  AND  SILK  MANUFAC- 
TURES INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES  1  884-1  900 
MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

Silk  Manufactures. 

Raw  Silk. 


1 1  259  000  pounds $44  549  000 

In  1875  the  United  States 
imported  only  about  one  million 
one  hundred  thousand  pounds. 
The  great  development  of  silk- 
manufacturing  has  made  the 
United  States  the  largest  im- 
porter of  raw  silk  in  the  world. 
This  country  imports  about  a 
million  and  a  half  pounds  of 
waste  silk  and  nearly  two  million 
pounds  of  spun  silk,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  cocoons.  France  im- 
ports largely  of  raw  silk  from 
China,  Italy,  Japan,  Turkey,  and 
Russia.  Cocoons  are  imported 
from  Russia,  Italy,  and  Turkey, 
and     from     Oriental    countries. 


Eggs  attached  to  cards  are  exported  from  Japan  to  Italy. 


HIDES  AND  SKINS. 


113 


Spiders'  web  has  been  spun  into  silk,  also  the  cocoons  of  other 
moths,  some  of  which  subsist  on  the  leaves  of  the  oak  and  of  other  trees 
than  the  mulberry. 

Artificial  silk  is  made  by  various  chemical  processes  from  wood 
cellulose,  but  not  in  sufficient  amount  to  be  of  any  menace  to  the  natural 
silk  industry. 

HIDES  AND  SKINS. 

Hides  and  skins  form  an  important  part  of  the  commerce  of  the 
world.    They  are  classified  into: 

1st.  Hides,  the  skins  of  the  largest  animals  like  horned  cattle  and 
horses. 

2d.     Kips,  the  skins  of  small  or  yearling  cattle. 

3d.     Skins,  the  skins  of  smaller  animals  like  sheep,  goats,  seals,  etc. 

The  domestic  animals  furnish  the  largest  supply  of  hides  and 
skins,  although  the  great  majority  of  mammals  whose  skins  are  not 
used  for  furs  contribute  more  or  less. 

When  the  hides  enter  into  the  trade  they  are  known  as : 

1st.  Raw  or  green  hides — 
the  condition  in  which  they  leave 
the  slaughter-house. 

2d.  Salted  hides — which 
may  be  either  dry  or  wet  salted, 
having  been  seasoned  with  salt 
or  other  substance  to  prevent 
them  from  putrefying. 

3d.     Tanned  or  cured  hides. 

The  great  leather  manufac- 
turing countries  all  import  large 
quantities  of  hides  and  skins 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
their  home  production  is  large. 
The  United  States  imported 
$57000000  worth  of  hides  and 
skins  in  1900,  of  which  over  one 
third  was  goat-skins,  one  third 
was  hides  of  cattle,  and  the  remainder  consisted  of  buffalo,  calf,  sheep, 


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FIG.  53.— UNITED  STATES  IMPORTS  OF  HIDES  AND 
SKINS.  TOTAL.  GOATSKINS,  AND  ALL  OTHERS 
1890-1900  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

1 Total. 

3 All  Others. 

3_ Goat  Skins. 


114  RA  W  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 

and  other  hides   and   skins.     The   United   Kingdom,   Germany,   and 
France,  each  imported  about  one  half  as  much  as  the  United  States. 

In  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Brazil  and  parts  of  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
and  Mexico,  as  well  as  in  India,  Russia,  and  some  other  large  hide- 
exporting  countries,  cattle  are  frequently  raised  largely  for  the  profit 
to  be  made  out  of  their  hides.  Goats  are  also  raised  mainly  for  their 
skins.  The  supply  of  hides  exported  to  the  manufacturing  centres  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States  come  principally  from  India,  China, 
Straits  Settlements,  Russia,  South  America,  and  South  Africa,  as  well 
as  from  other  European  countries.  The  supply  of  goat  skins  comes 
principally  from  Russia,  Turkey,  Italy,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Arabia  India, 
Algeria,  and  Morocco. 

BONES. 

Bones  enter  largely  into  commerce  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
The  larger  bones  are  made  into  knife  and  fork  handles,  combs,  tooth 
and  nail  brushes ;  the  smaller  ones  into  buttons  and  other  small  articles. 
When  bones  are  boiled  in  a  weak  acid,  gelatine  is  obtained  which  is 
used  by  dyers  and  finishers  of  fustians  and  velveteens.  When  bones 
are  burned  in  a  closed  vessel,  animal  charcoal  is  obtained  which  is  used 
in  refining  sugar.  Phosphorus  used  in  lucifer  matches,  and  super- 
phosphate of  lime  used  as  a  fertilizer  are  also  obtained  from  bones. 

Bones  are  exported  in  large  quantities  from  Russia,  India,  Argen- 
tina, Uruguay,  Brazil,  and  other  cattle-raising  countries.  The  United 
Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  and  the  United  States  all  import  large 
quantities  of  bones.  The  first  three  import  about  $2  000  000  worth 
each,  the  United  States  about  $1  000  000  worth,  mainly  from  Argentina 
and  Uruguay.  This  country  also  has  a  large  supply  from  the  cattle 
regions  of  the  west.  The  largest  part  of  the  bones  imported  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  fertilizers. 

HORN. 

Horn  is  different  from  bone.  The  antlers  on  a  stag  are  bone  and 
not  horn  and  are  shed  every  year.  The  horns  used  in  manufacturing 
are  those  of  the  ox,  cow,  bison,  sheep,  goat,  and  antelope.  Most  horns 
have  a  bony  core  which  is  gotten  out  by  soaking  them  in  water  for  five 
or  six  weeks ;  the  finest  gelatine  is  made  out  of  the  pith.    The  tips  of 


HOOFS-HAIR.  llo 

the  horns  are  soHd  and  are  sawed  off  and  made  into  umbrella  and  knife 
handles.  The  hollow  part  is  softened  by  boiling;  it  is  then  slit  open 
with  a  knife,  spread  out  flat  and  pressed  between  iron  plates.  These 
layers  may  be  very  thin  and  are  pressed  in  heated  moulds  and  given 
any  shape  desired.  In  this  way  knife  and  fork  handles,  buttons,  etc., 
are  made  from  horn.  For  making  combs  horn  is  pressed  lightly,  other- 
wise the  teeth  would  be  too  brittle.  Horn  is  easily  colored  to  look  like 
tortoise  shell.  Horns  are  exported  largely  from  India,  Africa,  South 
America,  Russia,  and  other  countries  into  the  United  States,  United 
.    Kingdom,  and  the  manufacturing  centres  of  continental  Europe. 

II  HOOFS. 

I  Hoofs  are  the  horny  coverings  of  the  feet  of  horses,  oxen,  cows, 
Sleep,  and  goats.  The  hoofs  of  cattle  are  used  to  make  combs,  buttons, 
etc.  The  hoofs  of  horses,  oxen,  etc.,  are  made  into  glue.  Prussian 
blue  for  dyeing  calicoes  is  also  obtained  from  hoofs.  If  the  hoofs  are 
pure  white  they  have  a  high  value,  as  they  can  be  sent  to  China  to  be 
made  into  jewelry. 

HAIR. 

Human  hair  is  exported  from  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
China.  $500  000  worth  is  sent  from  China  annually,  Marseilles  being 
the  principal  market  for  it.  Light  hair  is  obtained  from  Germany ;  dark 
hair  from  Belgium,  France,  Italy,  and  Spain.  The  hair  cut  from  a 
young  girl's  head  will  weigh  from  one  to  one  and  three  fourths  pounds. 
Hair  twenty  five  inches  long  brings  the  best  prices ;  shorter  lengths  are 
less  valuable.  The  price  is  from  one  to  twenty  dollars  per  pound 
according  to  the  demand  of  fashion.  France  imports  about  $500000 
worth  of  human  hair;  the  United  States  about  $174000  worth.  It  is 
used  for  jewelry  and  other  objects  as  well  as  for  wigs,  curls,  and 
chignons. 

Horse  hair  is  exported  from  Russia,  China,  Argentina,  and  Ger- 
many; cattle  hair  from  European  countries,  Argentina  and  Australia. 
Cattle  hair  is  used  for  mixing  mortar  and  for  upholstering ;  horse  hair 
is  used  for  stuffing  mattresses,  and  the  longer  hair  is  woven  into  a  cloth 
which  is  used  for  covering  for  sofas,  chairs,  etc.,  and  is  known  as  horse- 
hair cloth.  The  United  States  imported  about  $2  500  000  worth  of  hair 
in  1900  of  which  49  per  cent  was  horse  hair, 


116  J^AIV  MATERIALS   OF  ANIMAL    ORIGIN. 

BRISTLES. 

Bristles  are  a  useful  animal  fibre  obtained  from  the  stiflf  glossy 
hairs  of  the  wild  boar  and  the  hog.  These  hairs  are  from  three  to  ten 
inches  in  length  and  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes.  Improved 
breeds  of  hogs  do  not  have  this  long  hair  so  that  American  hog  bristles 
have  very  little  value.  Bristles  are  black,  brown,  gray,  yellow,  and 
white.  The  most  valuable  are  the  silvery  white  ones  which  are  called 
"lilies"  and  are  used  for  shaving  brushes  and  tooth  brushes.  They  are 
exported  mainly  from  Russia,  China,  and  Germany.  The  United 
Kingdom  imports  about  $3  000  000  worth  and  the  United  States  over 
$2  000  000  worth. 

FUR. 

Fur  is  the  name  given  to  the  soft  fine  hair  next  to  the  skin  of  fur- 
bearing  animals  and  under  the  hair  which  is  longer  and  coarser.  Furs 
are  obtained  from  a  great  variety  of  animals,  but  principally  from  the 
carnivora  or  flesh-eating  animals,  like  the  tiger,  fox,  and  ermine,  or 
from  the  rodentia  or  gnawing  animals,  like  the  rabbit,  squirrel,  and 
hare.  Fur  is  one  of  the  best  non-conductors  of  heat  and  is  therefore 
the  most  comfortable  clothing  in  cold  countries,  but  large  quantities 
of  fancy  furs  are  imported  into  countries  with  a  temperate  climate 
where  they  are  used  more  for  ornamentation  than  for  warmth. 

All  furs  are  either  felted  or  dressed,  the  former  or  staple  furs  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  and  the  latter  or  fancy  furs  are  used 
for  articles  of  clothing.  The  skins  are  called  peltries  before  being 
dressed ;  when  the  long  hairs  have  been  pulled  out  of  them,  they  are 
called  furs.  The  felting  or  staple  furs  are  obtained  from  such  animals 
as  the  hare,  rabbit,  and  beaver.  The  fancy  furs  are  obtained  from  the 
fox,  ermine,  sable,  seal,  and  similar  animals.  The  most  numerous  skins 
coming  into  the  market,  which  are  sold  by  millions,  are  those  of  squir- 
rels from  Siberia,  of  rabbits  from  Australia  and  Europe,  of  hares  from 
Europe  and  Asia,  nutria  from  South  America,  and  muskrat  from  North 
America.  The  largest  skins  are  those  of  the  bear  from  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America,  of  the  lion  from  Africa,  and  of  the  tiger  from  India. 
The  most  valuable  are  the  ermine  from  Russia,  Siberia,  Norway  and 
Sweden,  the  silver  fox  from  Siberia  and  British  America,  the  marten 
from  Europe  and  America,  the  sable  from  Russia  and  Siberia,  the 


FEATHERS.  lit 

chinchilla  from  Chile  and  Peru,  the  sea  otter  and  the  fur  seal  from  the 
North  Pacific.  The  fur  seal  is  found  on  the  Pribilof  Islands  in  the 
territory  of  Alaska. 

The  North  American  furs  go  to  New  York  although  most  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company's  furs  go  to  London.  The  Siberian  furs  find  a 
market  in  Nijni-Novgorod.  London  and  Leipzic  are  the  great  fur 
markets  of  the  world,  and  there  one  can  find  furs  from  every  quarter 
of  the  globe.  The  United  Kingdom,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  all  import  large  quantities  of  furs.  The  United  Kingdom  exports 
about  $7  GOO  GOO  worth  of  furs,  of  which  over  one  half  is  sent  to  the 
United  States.  The  United  States  in  1900  exported  $4  500  000  worth 
of  skins  and  furs,  and  imported  $6  600  000  worth ;  it  also  imported  over 
$5  GGO  GGO  worth  of  manufactured  fur,  a  large  part  of  which  had  been 
previously  exported  as  skins.  Formerly  seal  skins  were  all  sent  to 
London  to  be  dressed  but  now  many  of  them  are  dressed  in  this  country. 

FEATHERS. 

Feathers  are  the  light  portions  of  the  wings  and  plumage  of  birds. 
Commercially  they  are  divided  into  two  classes :  bed  feathers  and  orna 
mental  feathers. 

The  best  bed  feathers  are  obtained  from  the  goose,  whose  feathers 
are  softer,  more  springy,  and  warmer  than  other  feathers.  Turkey, 
hen,  and  duck  feathers  are  used  for  cheap  beds.  Eider  down  feathers 
are  used  mainly  for  covers  of  beds ;  they  are  obtained  on  the  rocky 
coasts  of  northwest  Europe  from  the  nests  of  the  eider  duck  which  rob 
their  own  breasts  to  line  the  nests  for  their  young. 

Ornamental  feathers  are  obtained  from  the  ostrich,  heron,  bird 
of  paradise,  and  numerous  other  birds.  The  ostrich  is  a  native  of 
the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia,  but  they  have  been  domesti- 
cated in  South  Africa  and  to  some  extent  in  northern  Africa.  The  male 
bird  is  glossy  black  with  white  plumes  in  wings  and  tails.  Ostrich 
plumes  are  the  most  highly  prized,  especially  the  white  ones.  The  ex- 
ports of  ostrich  feathers  from  South  Africa  amount  to  nearly  $5  000  000 
annually,  and  from  northern  Africa  to  about  one  fourth  of  this  amount. 
Ostrich  farms  have  also  been  introduced  into  Argentina  which  exported 
nearly  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  feathers  in  1899.    In  California 


118  RA  W  MATERIALS  OF  ANIMAL  ORIGIN. 

and  Florida  a  few  farms  have  been  started  but  they  are  not  yet  impor- 
tant commercially. 

The  United  States  imports  annually  about  $2  000  000  worth  of 
ornamental  feathers  of  which  about  one  half  are  ostrich  feathers  in  a 
crude  state  from  Africa  direct  or  via  United  Kingdom  and  one  half 
other  ornamental  feathers  dressed  or  in  bird  form  mainly  from  France 
and  Germany,  with  smaller  amounts  from  Mexico,  Brazil,  and  Venez- 
uela. The  United  Kingdom  imports  annually  about  12000  cwts.  of 
ornamental  feathers,  valued  at  $8  000  000,  of  which  about  one  half  are 
ostrich  feathers.  France  imports  ornamental  feathers  to  the  value  of 
$7000000,  and  exports  about  $8000000  worth  annually.  Nearly 
$2  000  000  worth  of  artificial  feathers  and  flowers  are  annually  imported 
into  the  United  States  mostly  from  France  and  Germany. 

IVORY. 

Ivory  is  the  hard  white  substance  which  forms  the  tusks  of  the 
elephant,  the  teeth  of  the  hippopotamus  and  the  walrus,  and  the  horn  of 
the  narwhal.  Elephants'  tusks  are  the  most  highly  esteemed,  those 
from  Africa  being  considered  the  best.  The  tusks  of  the  elephant 
sometimes  weigh  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds  and  average  over  twenty 
pounds.  The  heavier  tusks  are  worth  considerably  more  per  pound 
than  the  lighter  ones.  Ivory  is  also  found  in  Siberia  where  it  is  obtained 
from  the  dead  mammoths,  or  elephants,  in  the  frozen  soil  in  which  they 
have  been  entombed  for  thousands  of  years.  Thousands  of  ele- 
phants are  killed  annually  in  the  interior  of  Africa  for  their  tusks  alone. 
The  tusks  are  brought  to  the  coasts  and  to  interior  trading  towns  by 
the  natives  or  by  caravans  across  the  desert. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  ivory  imported  into  Europe  comes  from 
Africa;  the  principal  markets  for  ivory  are  London  and  Antwerp. 
British  India  and  Ceylon  furnish  a  comparatively  small  amount.  Zan- 
zibar, Mozambique,  Congo  Free  State,  Cape  Colony,  Egypt,  and  other 
African  coast  countries  all  export  ivory  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
London  imports  annually  $2  000  000  worth  of  ivory  mainly  African. 
Antwerp  imports  about  $1  000  000  worth  mainly  from  Congo  Free 
State.  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Netherlands  and  the  United  States 
import  less  amounts  direct,  and  also  import  from  United  Kingdom  and 


IVORY.  119 

Belgium.  Of  the  $800  000  worth  imported  by  the  United  States  about 
one  fourth  only  comes  direct  from  Africa.  Seventy  five  per  cent  of  the 
world's  ivory  is  consumed  in  Europe,  about  ten  per  cent  in  the  United 
States,  and  ten  per  cent  in  India. 

Knife  handles,  piano  keys,  billiard  balls,  and  combs  are  manu- 
factured from  ivory  largely  in  the  United  States,  the  United  Kingdom, 
Germany,  and  France.  Large  quantities  of  ivory  are  used  in  various 
kinds  of  manufactures  in  India. 

Vegetable  ivory  is  the  fruit  or  seed  of  a  dwarf  palm  found  in 
Ecuador  and  United  States  of  Colombia.  The  white  albumen  they 
contain  is  used  by  turners  and  others  to  make  buttons  and  other  small 
fancy  articles.  Large  quantities  of  it  are  exported  from  Ecuador  and 
'Colombia  to  the  United  States  and  Europe.  The  United  States  im- 
ported nearly  $250  000  worth  in  1900. 


PRODUCTS  OF  FORESTS. 

Forests  cover  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  earth's  landed  area.  One 
fourth  of  Europe  is  forest  area;  of  the  United  States  almost  thirty 
seven  per  cent.  The  countries  possessed  of  the  largest  forests  are 
Canada,  Russia,  United  States,  Brazil,  India,  Sweden,  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, and  France ;  of  these  the  United  States,  Canada,  Russia,  Sweden 
and  Norway,  and  Austria  are  the  great  wood-exporting  countries.  The 
United  Kingdom  is  the  largest  wood-importing  country,  the  imports 
amounting  to  more  than  $100000000  annually.  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  and  some  other  European  countries,  also  the  L'J'nited  States, 
import  large  quantities  of  wood.  France  with  only  eighteen  per  cent 
of  forest  area,  must  import  largely ;  Germany  has  twenty  six  per  cent 
of  forest  land  and  the  excess  of  wood  imports  over  its  exports  is  very 
small.  Austria  whose  forests  cover  thirty  per  cent  of  its  area,  is  a  large 
exporter  of  wood.  The  forest  areas  of  the  United  States  amount  to 
about  five  hundred  million  acres,  seven  tenths  of  which  are  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  one  tenth  on  the  Pacific,  and  one  tenth  on  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  prairie  states  have  scarcely  four  per  cent  of  the 
forest  area. 


120 


PRODUCTS  OF  FORESTS. 


The  world's  consumption  of  wood  amounts  to  about  thirty  biUion 
cubic  feet  a  year,  of  which  about  one  half  is  used  for  fire  wood  and 
the  balance  for  building  and  other  purposes.  Three  fourths  of  the 
wood  consumed  in  Russia  is  used  for  fuel,  while  in  the  United  States 
only  one  third  of  the  wood  is  used  for  that  purpose. 

The  demands  of  national  welfare  now  require  the  preservation 
of  forests  as  a  means  of  husbanding  the  atmospheric  moisture  and  the 
resources  of  the  soil.  While  the  theory  that  forests  attract  moisture 
and  thereby  cause  rain  is  no  longer  accepted,  it  is  positively  known  that 


MAP 

jA»i/^fh  ifiJtriiuf'On  ^fon^ia/i^ 


FIG.  54.-SHOWING  FOREST  LAND  AND  LUMBER  REGIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  sVaTES. 


the  trees  prevent  the  too  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil, 
and  impede  the  surface  flow  of  the  rain  falling  on  it.  This  permits  a 
much  larger  part  of  the  water  to  be  absorbed  by  the  soil  where  it  is  held 
by  the  roots  and  thereby  prevented  from  washing  through  and  leeching 
out  the  elements  necessary  to  vegetable  growth,  which  means  in  this 
connection  continued  forest  growth.  It  is  estimated  that  twenty  five 
per  cent  of  the  land  area  carefully  and  scientifically  cultivated  as  forests, 
is  required  to  supply  the  local  demands  in  countries  with  a  dense  popu- 
lation.    The  cutting  of  lumber  is  rapidly  denuding  the  forests  of  the 


United  States,  Canada,  Sweden,  and  northern  Russia  because  there  is 
no  systematic  method  adopted  for  the  conservation  of  the  forests.  The 
three  nations  most  advanced  in  forestry  are  France,  Germany  and 
Austria,  and  India.  Forestry  is  being  developed  in  the  United  States 
after  the  methods  already  so  successful  in  Europe  and  India.  In  the 
United  States  and  Canada  arbor  days  have  been  appointed  to  encourage 
the  planting  of  trees. 

In  the  United  States  woods  are  divided  into  hard  woods  and  soft 
woods.  Under  the  term  soft  woods  are  included  all  trees  whose  leaves 
consist  of  spines ;  under  the  term  hard  wood  those  having  broad  leaves 
whether  deciduous  or  evergreen.  The  principal  hard  woods  entering 
into  export  trade  are  walnut,  cherry,  poplar  or  white  wood,  cotton- 
wood,  oak,  cypress,  chestnut,  gum,  hickory.  Other  hard  woods  are  ash, 
birch,  elm,  and  beech.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  hard  woods  are  rare,  the 
principal  growths  being  conifers  of  the  pine  and  fir  character  and  of 
extraordinary  development.  Besides  the  gigantic  red  woods  various 
spruces,  firs,  cedars,  and  hemlocks  form  the  valuable  supplies.  In  the 
Rocky  Mountains  no  hard  woods  of  commercial  value  occur ;  the  woods 
are  mainly  spruces,  firs,  and  pines.  The  Southern  States  contain  in 
their  more  southern  section  large  areas  exclusively  of  pine  forests  with 
cypress  in  the  bottom  lands,  the  northern  portions  are  covered  with 
hard  woods,  and  the  intervening  region  with  a  mixture  of  both.  The 
Northern  States  are  mostly  occupied  by  hard  wood  growths  with  coni- 
fers intermixed,  as  the  spruce  forests  of  the  New  England  States. 
Commercially  the  timber  of  the  Southern  States  is  the  most  important 
as  more  than  Jialf  the  export  of  wood  from  the  United  States  is  from 
the  South,  the  Pacific  Coast  being  next  in  importance.  The  Lake 
region  has  the  largest  output  of  lumber,  but  owing  to  the  great  number 
of  furniture  and  vehicle  industries  in  or  near  that  locality,  large  quanti- 
ties of  wood  are  consumed  near  the  source  of  the  raw  materials. 

About  forty  billion  feet  board  measure,  are  cut  in  the  United  States 
every  year,  of  which  thirty  billions  are  pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock ;  three 
bilHons  oak ;  and  seven  billions  other  hard  wood.  Of  this,  thirteen 
.billions  come  from  the  Lake  region,  ten  billions  from  the  Southern 
States,  six  billions  from  the  New  England  and  North  Atlantic  States, 
five  billions  from  the  Central  States,  four  billions  from  the  Pacific 


122 


PRODUCTS  OF  FORESTS. 


States,  and  two  billions  from  the  Mountain  States.  The  lumber  of  com-  i 
merce  is  obtained  principally  from  the  firs  and  pines.  It  is  exported  in 
the  form  of  logs,  deals,  planks,  boards,  shooks  or  staves,  and  shingles. 
/  /  The  imports  of  wood  amounted  to  about  $15000000  in  1900,  of 
which  two  thirds  came  from  Canada  and  one  sixth  consisted  of  mate- 
rials which  do  not  grow  in  the  United  States.  Central  America,  Mexico, 
the  West  Indies,  and  South  America  furnish  the  mahogany,  rosewood, 
and  other  cabinet  woods. 

The  exports  of  wood  amounted  to  $39  000  000  in  1900.     Of  the 
lumber,  sawed  and  hewed  logs  amounted  to  $6  000  000.     The  United 

Kingdom  took  one  half  and 
other  Europe  one  third  of  the 
lumber.  Boards,  deals,  and 
planks  amounted  to  $17000- 
000;  Europe  took  one  half,  the 
United  Kingdom  about  one 
fourth.  Other  important  mar- 
kets are  Mexico,  Cuba  and  other 
West  Indies,  Argentina  and 
other  South  American  countries, 
Australia,  Hawaii  and  Africa. 
In  many  of  these  countries,  like 
Australia  and  Argentina,  they  j 
have  abundance  of  wood  but  it 
is  not  suitable  for  building  pur- 
poses as  in  Australia;  or,  if 
suitable,  it  cannot  be  brought  to 
the  populous  centers  as  conven- 
The  great  shipping  ports  are  New 
Baltimore,   New    Orleans,    Puget 


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FIG.  55.— UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS  AND  IM- 
PORTS OF  WOOD  AND  WOOD  MANUFACTURES 
1884-1  900  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

,   Imports. 

, Exports. 


iently  as  from  the  United  States. 
York,   Pensacola,    Newport   News, 
Sound,  and  San  Francisco. 

The  industries  relying  directly  or  indirectly  on  the  forest  products 
of  the  United  States  employ  a  million  workers  and  produce  nearly 
$2  000  000  000  of  value,  more  than  double  that  of  all  the  products  of 
the  mines  of  the  United  States.  The  manufactures  growing  out  of 
wood  wholly  or  in  part,  double  the  value  of  the  lumber  and  give  em- 


WOOD.  123 

ployment  to  about  five  hundred  thousand  men;  they  about  equal  the 
combined  manufactures  of  woolen,  cotton,  and  leather  goods  in  persons 
employed,  wages  paid,  and  values  produced. 

Canada  has  the  largest  forest  area  of  any  country  in  the  world — 
about  eight  hundred  million  acres,  or  more  than  all  the  forest  areas  of 
Europe,  and  its  forests  contain  a  great  variety  of  trees.  White  pine  is 
the  most  important  in  value  and  for  commercial  purposes;  it  is  found 
in  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  the  Maritime  Provinces.  The  rapid  exhaus- 
tion of  the  pine  forests  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  will 
increase  the  demand  for  Canadian  pine.  Spruce  far  exceeds  pine  in 
area  and  quantity  but  no  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the  exact  amount 
of  it.  Canada  produces  enough  hard  wood  to  supply  its  own  wants. 
The  exports,  nearly  all  of  which  is  either  spruce  or  pine,  amount  to 
about  $25  000  000  annually  and  are  sent  mainly  to  the  United  States 
and  the  United  Kingdom. 

Russia  with  her  five  hundred  million  acres  of  forest  is  the  most 
important  lumber-producing  country  of  the  world,  and  already  exports 
$28  000  000  worth  of  wood.  Sweden  the  next  largest  wood-exporting 
country  of  Europe  has  only  forty  four  million  acres  and  her  supplies 
will  soon  be  exhausted.  The  United  States  will  soon  need  all  her  own 
dim.inishing  supplies  as  well  as  all  the  supplies  of  Canada.  Russia 
will  therefore  remain  a  timber-exporting  country  after  all  other  export- 
ing countries  have  exhausted  their  supplies.  Its  ports  of  Riga,  Arch- 
angel, and  others  are  convenient  for  transportation  by  water  to  Great 
Britain  and  other  wood-consuming  countries  of  Europe.  Most  of  the 
forests  of  Russia  belong  to  the  government  and  bring  in  a  large  revenue. 

Sweden  exports  about  $17000000  worth  of  wood  annually  and  is 
the  principal  rival  of  the  United  States  in  non-European  markets,  the 
kinds  of  wood  exported  being  useful  for  building  purposes. 

Mahogany  which  is  used  for  veneering  on  furniture  and  cabinet 
work  comes  from  tropical  America.  Haiti  is  said  to  produce  the  best. 
It  is  also  obtained  from  Honduras,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica.  Kauri  is 
obtained  from  New  Zealand  and  is  used  for  general  purposes  in  its 
native  country,  and  for  house-building  work  is  unequaled ;  it  is  also 
used  for  street  paving.  Jarrah  is  the  principal  wood  exported  from 
West  Australia;  it  is  valuable  for  ship  building,  for  wharves,  and  for 


124  PRODUCTS  OF  FISHERIES. 

under  ground  structures,  as  it  is  not  affected  by  the  teredo,  or  ship- 
worm.  Teak  is  obtained  from  India,  Burma,  Siam,  and  Java.  The 
export  of  teak  from  Siam  is  very  large.  It  expands  and  contracts 
very  little  under  changes  of  temperature,  and  is  much  used  in  all  work 
requiring  durability  and  strength.  Iron  will  not  rust  in  it  as  it  will  in 
oak  because  teak  wood  exudes  an  oil  which  prevents  rust.  Rosewood 
is  obtained  from  Brazil  and  is  used  entirely  in  the  manufacture  of  fine 
furniture.  Ebony  which  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  persimmon, 
is  obtained  from  the  East  Indies,  especially  Ceylon,  and  is  mostly  used 
in  furniture  as  a  veneer.  It  is  very  hard  and  the  core  of  the  wood  only 
is  used. 

PRODUCTS  OF  FISHERIES. 

The  most  important  fisheries  in  the  world  are  on  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland and  Nova  Scotia,  and  are  known  as  "The  Banks."  They 
are  covered  with  comparatively  shallow  water  and  have  been  used  as  a 
fishing-ground  for  over  three  centuries.  The  Banks  are  visited  by 
five  thousand  vessels  annually  almost  all  of  which  are  from  the  United 
States,  Canada,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  France.  The  principal  fish 
caught  are  cod  and  haddock,  and  the  supply  seems  to  continue  the 
same  from  year  to  year.  The  fisheries  on  the  North  Sea  rank  next  in 
importance.  The  United  Kingdom  in  1899  landed  $46cx)0  000  worth 
of  fish  which  was  more  than  any  other  nation,  the  United  States  being 
second  with  $40000000  worth.  The  fisheries  are  mainly  those  of 
Scotland  and  England,  and  eighty  per  cent  of  the  fish  are  landed  on 
the  east  coast.  This  is  because  of  the  immense  quantities  of  fish  found 
in  the  waters  of  the  North  Sea.  The  great  fish  ports  of  England  are 
London,  Grimsby,  Hull,  Lowestoft,  and  Yarmouth.  Nearly  one 
fourth  of  the  fish  are  landed  in  England,  about  one  fourth  in  Scotland, 
and  only  a  small  percentage  in  Ireland.  There  has  been  a  steady 
increase  in  the  value  of  fish  caught  in  the  United  Kingdom.  In 
England  haddock  and  herring  lead  in  quantity,  but  in  value  the  order 
is  haddock,  plaice,  herring,  soles,  cod,  mackerel,  and  turbot.  In  Scot- 
land herring  constitute  more  than  one  half  the  fish  both  in  quantity  and 
value;  cod  and  haddock  each  amount. to  nearly  one  half  as  much  as 
the  herring.     In  Ireland  one  half  the  fish  caught  are  mackerel.     Among 


FISH,  ETC.  125 

shell  fish  oysters  are  the  most  important.     Lobsters  and  crabs  are  also 
important. 

England  imported  $16000000  worth  of  fish  in  1899  ^^  which 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  and  the  United  States  furnished  nearly  one 
half.  The  exports  from  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  to  nearly 
$14  500000,  of  which  $11  000000  worth  were  herring. 

The  value  of  fish  caught  in  the  United  States  in  1899  was  $40000- 
000,  of  which  the  ocean  and  coastal  fisheries  furnished  $27400000 
worth,  the  river  fisheries  $8  600  000,  and  the  lake  fisheries  $4  000  000 
worth'.  The  United  States  fisheries  have  decreased  in  value  owing  in 
a  large  measure  to  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  mackerel,  seals,  and 
whales  caught. 

Oysters  are  the  most  valuable  products  of  the  fisheries  of  the 
United  States.  They  are  found  on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  oceans  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Chesapeake  Bay,  Long  Island 
Sound,  and  the  New  Jersey  coast  are  all  famous  for  their  oysters.  In ' 
the  Chesapeake  Bay  dependence  is  placed  mainly  on  the  natural  beds 
with  restrictive  laws,  while  in  Long  Island  Sound  active  and  direct 
methods  of  cuhivating  the  oyster  beds  prevail.  In  the  former  there 
was,  from  1880  to  1897,  a  decrease  from  seventeen  million  to  fourteen 
million  bushels,  while  in  the  latter  there  was  an  increase  during  the 
same  time  from  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  to  four  million 
three  hundred  thousand  bushels.  Baltimore  is  famous  for  its  oysters ; 
more  than  one  half  the  oysters  coming  into  the  world's  markets  are 
obtained  from  the  Chesapeake  Bay. 

In  the  New  England  States  the  products  of  fisheries  are  chiefly 
cod  and  haddock.  These  represent  about  two  thirds  of  the  catch 
landed  at  Boston  and  Gloucester.  Codfish  are  now  landed  fresh  more 
than  they  were  formerly.  Mackerel  and  lobsters,  which  are  decreas- 
ing, and  oysters  are  the  other  more  valuable  catches  of  this  region. 

'  In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  oysters  represent  more  than  one 
half  the  catch ;  clams,  shad,  menhaden,  bluefish,  alewives  and  squeteague 
are  the  other  important  fish  in  order  of  value.  In  the  Delaware  River 
sturgeon  are  caught  largely  for  their  roe  which  is  manufactured  mto 
caviare,  of  which  over  $100000  worth  was  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  1900,  almost  entirely  to  Germany. 


126  PRODUCTS  OF  FISHERIES. 

In  the  South  Atlantic  States  shad,  oysters,  alewives,  and  mullet, 
and  in  the  Gulf  States  oysters,  sponges,  mullet,  snappers,  squeteague, 
and  shrimps  are  the  more  important  fishery  products. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  salmon  are  the  principal  fish,  immense  quan- 
tities being  canned  and  exported.  In  1899  two  million  four  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  cases  of  salmon,  each  case  containing  forty  eight 
one  pound  cans,  were  sent  to  market,  against  seven  hundred  thousand 
cases  in  British  Columbia.  The  other  important  products  of  the  fish- 
eries of  the  Pacific  coast  are  whalebone,  oysters,  seals,  shrimps,  and 
crabs. 

On  the  Great  Lakes  white  fish,  lake  herring,  and  lake  trout  are  the 
most  valuable  fish. 

Whale-fishing  is  still  continued  from  the  New  England  fisheries, 
and  whale  and  seal-fishing  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Whales  are  caught 
to  obtain  whalebone  and  train  oil,  seals  mainly  for  their  skins  which 
are  made  into  furs. 

Of  the  $5  420  000  worth  of  fish  exported  from  the  United  States 
in  1900,  the  principal  items  were  salmon,  of  which  $2  700  000  worth 
was  canned  and  $530000  worth  was  fresh  and  cured.  Of  oysters 
$800000  worth,  and  dried  fish  $400000  worth  were  exported;  two 
thirds  of  the  salmon  and  one  half  of  the  oysters  were  sent  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  Most  of  the  dried  fish  was  sent  to  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America. 

Of  the  $7  000  000  worth  of  fish  imported,  sardines  and  anchovies 
amounted  to  $1  480  000  in  value ;  herring,  pickled  and  salted,  to 
$1  350000;  mackerel  $1  276000;  and  lobsters  $930000.  The  sardines 
came  chiefly  from  France  and  Portugal;  one  half  the  herrings  came 
from  Holland,  Sweden  and  Norway;  the  United  Kingdom  also  fur- 
nished herring  and  mackerel ;  and  Canada,  lobsters  and  mackerel.  Most 
of  these  fish  may  be  found  in  our  own  waters  and  are  only  imported 
because  of  the  better  methods  of  preparing  them  for  market  adopted 
in  other  countries.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  United  States  fisheries 
should  not  supply  nearly  all  these  if  they  would  prepare  them  in  the 
same  way  for  market  as  is  done  abroad. 

The  products  of  the  Canadian  fisheries  amount  in  value  to  about 
$20000000  annually.     On  the  Atlantic  coast    lobsters,  cod,  herring. 


FISH,  ETC.  127 

haddock,  trout,  and  smelts  are  the  most  valuable.  On  the  Pacific 
coast,  salmon.  In  Newfoundland  the  value  of  the  fish  caught  is  about 
$5  GOO  GOO  annually,  of  which  cod,  haddock,  and  salmon  are  the  most 
important ;   seal  and  whale  fisheries  are  carried  on  to  some  extent. 

The  chief  Norwegian  fisheries  are  those  of  cod  on  the  shallow 
banks  of  the  Lofoden  islands,  the  herring  fisheries  near  Bergen,  and 
mackerel. 

In  France  sardines  and  anchovies  are  found  on  the  Mediterranean, 
in  the  channel  of  Provence,  and  on  the  Atlantic  at  Bordeaux  and  Le 
Mans.  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy  also  catch  large  quantities  of  these 
fish.  The  tunny,  a  large  fish,  sometimes  over  twelve  feet  long  and 
weighing  over  one  thousand  pounds,  is  caught  off  the  coast  of  Sicily 
and  Sardinia.  In  Russia  the  most  abundant  fish  is  the  sturgeon  from 
the  roe  of  which  caviare  is  prepared  as  a  condiment.  This  is  the  most 
importaVit  fish  product  exported  from  Russia.  Japan  has  abundance 
of  cod,  salmon,  and  herring  in  the  waters  surrounding  the  island  of 
Yesso.  In  China  large  quantities  of  beche-de-mere,  a  kind  of  sea 
cucumber  which  is  the  favorite  food  of  the  Chinese,  are  imported  from 
Australia  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago ;  some  of  these  are  even  sent  to 
the  United  States  for  the  use  of  the  Chinese  here. 

The  value  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries  in  Japan,  Russia,  and 
France  exceeds  $20  0G0  00G  annually,  and  in  Sweden  and  Norway  it 
exceeds  $io  ggo  ggg  annually. 

The  great  markets  for  fish  from  Norway,  Newfoundland  and 
Canada  are  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  and  Latin 
America,  such  as  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Brazil,  and  other 
countries. 

The  importance  of  the  fish  industry  can  be  judged  by  the  number 
of  fishermen  employed.  The  United  States  has  over  two  hundred 
thousand ;  Scandinavia  one  hundred  and  sixty  five  thousand ;  United 
Kingdom  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand ;  France  eighty  five  thou- 
sand ;  Russia  seventy  five  thousand ;  Italy  seventy  thousand ;  Canada 
seventy  one  thousand. 

/^  Fish  are  caught  by  hook,  or  in  nets  which  are  either  fixed  or 
hauled.  Short  lines  are  used  close  to  the  shore.  On  the  coast  of 
Europe  lines  six  or  seven  miles  long  are  used  to  which  hundreds  of 


128  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

baited  hooks  are  attached.  These  are  sunk  across  the  current  to  let 
the  short  hnes  to  which  the  hooks  are  attached  float  clear  of  the  long 
ones.  Where  the  bottom  is  smooth  a  trawl  is  used;  this  is  hauled 
along  by  the  boats,  and  flat  fish,  such  as  flounders  and  halibut,  and  fish 
that  feed  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  like  cod,  haddock,  and  hake,  are 
caught.  Migrating  fish  such  as  herring  and  mackerel  are  caught  in 
drift  nets  sunk  across  the  current  so  that  the  head  of  the  fish  becomes 
entangled  in  the  meshes  which  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  fish 
to  be  caught.  Lobsters  and  crabs  are  caught  in  traps  or  nets.  Oysters 
and  clams  are  dredged. 

The  propagation  and  distribution  of  food  fishes,  or  pisciculture, 
has  become  an  important  industry  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  New- 
foundland, and  in  some  European  countries.  Eight  hundred  and  fifty 
seven  million  eggs,  fry,  and  adult  fish  were  distributed  by  the  United 
States  department  of  fish  "culture  in  1898.  These  represented  the  im- 
portant commercial  species  such  as  cod,  shad,  white-fish,  salmon,  lake 
trout,  herring,  pike,  perch,  and  lobsters.  Sixty  million  lobster  eggs 
were  distributed  along  tlie  New  England  coast ;  three  hundred  million 
shad  eggs  in  the  Susquehanna,  Delaware,  and  Potomac  rivers.  Lobster 
eggs  have  been  sent  from  Wood's  Holl  hatcheries  on  the  Massachusetts 
coast  to  San  Francisco,  and  three  to  four  million  lobsters  resulted  from 
it.     Regular  cars  are  provided  for  this  purpose. 


'   ^    MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

Industrial  progress  is  largely  dependent  upon  mineral  resources;, 
yet  it  is  necessary  that  a  nation  shall  be  advanced  to  some  e5j:tent  in  the 
scale  of  civilization  before  it  can,  in  this  age  at  least,  take  advantage 
of  the  existence  of  large  areas  containing  minerals.  This  is  shown  b] 
the  fact  that  large  areas  of  coal  and  iron  are  found  in  China  and  Indij 
and  yet  these  countries  are  dependent  on  the  United  States,  Unite< 
Kingdom,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  other  European  countries  for  mos^ 
of  their  supply  of  manufactured  iron  and  steel. 

Minerals  are  not  generally  found  in  such  a  condition  that  they"' 
can  be  used  without  change.    They  have  to  undergo  various  operations 
to  separate  them  from  the  rock,  or  gangue,  in  which  they  occur.    The 


IRON  AND  STEEL.  129 

various  processes  used  to  effect  this  are  called  collectively  concentrating. 
An  ore  of  a  metal  is  a  rock  gravel  or  sand  from  which  it  can  be  prof- 
itably extracted.  Some  metals  occur  in  nature  pure  or  nearly  so ;  they 
are  called  native. 

The  value  of  the  mineral  productions  of  the  United  States  at  the 
mines  amounted  to  over  a  billion  dollars  in  1900,  far  surpassing  that 
of  any  other  nation,  but  less  than  the  value  of  the  vegetable  or  animal 
products  of  agriculture  or  of  the  products  of  the  forests.  Mineral  pro- 
ducts, crude  and  manufactured,  have  become  in  recent  years  an  impor- 
tant feature  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States.  The  export  of  crude 
material  in  1900  only  amounted  to  about  $40000000,  or  less  than  three 
per  cent  of  the  total  exports ;  but  if  the  more  important  products  manu- 
factured from  these  be  considered,  it  amounted  to  $324000000  not 
incluchng  gold  and  silver  which  amounted  to  $105  000000. 

Minerals  are  divided  by  the  United  States  Geological  Statistical 
Department  into  metallic  and  non-metallic,  iron  being  the  most  valu- 
able representative  of  the  metallic  and  coal  of  the  non-metallic  division. 


Metallic  Mineral  Products. 

IRON  AND  STEEL. 

Of  all  minerals  iron  is  the  most  useful  to  man.  It  is  found  in 
some  form  in  almost  every  country  in  the  world.  It  occurs  in  a  pure 
form  only  in  meteorites  and  in  some  volcanic  rocks  in  Greenland. 
The  iron  of  commerce  is  obtained  mainly  from  four  ores:  The  red 
hematite,  or  oxide  of  iron,  so  Called  because  when  scratched  it  gives 
a  red  streak — this  is  the  most  important  ore  in  commerce  as  it  contains 
very  little  sulphur  or  phosphorus:  brown  hematite,  or  limonite,  gives 
a  brown  or  yellowish  streak  and  includes  what  are  known  as  bog- 
ores — this  is  the  m^t  abundant  ore:  magnetite,  or  magnetic  iron  ore, 
one  variety  of  which  is  the  lode-stone  which  is  a  natural  magnet ; 
siderite,  a  carbonate  of  iron,  which  sometimes  occurs  in  yellowish 
brown  crystals.  Iron  pyrites,  or  sulphide  of  iron,  is  quite  common,  but 
it  is  not  used  to  obtain  iron  but  sulphuric  acid:  Much  of  it  consists  of 
lustrous  cubic  crystals  of  brass  yellow  color.     It  is  sometimes  called 


130 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


fool's  gold,  but  it  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  gold  from  the  fact  ' 
that  a  knife  will  not  scratch  it.  j 

Large  beds  of  iron  ore  are  found  in  Asia,  especially  in  China  and  j 
India.  Russia  also  contains  immense  deposits  of  iron  ore,  but  the  ( 
world's  supply  comes  mainly  from  the  United  States,  Germany,  the  | 
United  Kingdom,  Spain,  France,  and  Sweden.  All  of  these  countries  | 
border  on  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  are  convenient  of  access  from  the 
great  iron-manufacturing  centres.  Of  the  eighty  four  million  tons  of 
iron  ore  produced  in  1899  about  thirty  per  cent  was  mined  in  the  United 


FIG.  56. -IRON  ORE   PRODUCING   AREAS   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


States,  the  larger  part  in  the  Lake  Superior  region;  less  than  thirteen 
per  cent  of  the  United  States  iron  ore  was  produced  outside  of  that 
region.  If  we  add  Russia  and  Austria-Hungary  to  the  above  mentioned 
countries  all  the  rest  of  the  world  produced  less  than  four  per  cent  of 
the  iron  ore. 

The  three  great  pig  iron  producing  countries  are  the  United  States, 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  Germany,  and  these  are  also  the  great  coal- 
producing  countries.  Their  large  production  of  pig  iron  is  due  to  the 
existence  of  cheap  fuel  as  well  as  limestone  at  a  convenient  distance 


PIG  IRON, 


181 


from  the  furnace.  The  other  large  pig  iron  producing  countries  are 
L  ranee,  Russia,  Belgium,  and  Sweden.  Spain  does  not  produce  much 
pig  iron ;  most  of  the  Spanish  iron  ore  is  exported,  more  than  one  half 
of  it  being  sent  to  England. 

Pig  iron  is  made  by  smelting  iron  ore  in  a  furnace  fifty  to  sixty  feet 
high,  into  which  a  large  quantity  of  air,  hot  or  cold,  is  forced  or  blown 
through  pipes  by  means  of  a  strong  blast  to  supply  the  oxygen  needed 
for  the  rapid  combustion  of  the  fuel.  The  blast  furnace  is  filled  with 
layers  of  coal  or  coke,  iron  ore,  and  limestone.    The  limestone  acts  as  a 


R\U 


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COUHJRies 


16.  57.— WORLD' 8  TOTAL  IRON  ORE  PRODUC- 
TION IN  1900    84  000  000  TONS. 
Each  square  =  ^  of  \<i. 


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FIG.  58.— PRODUCTION  OF  PIG  IRON  BY  PRINCIPAL 
COUNTRIES  1873-1900  IN  MILLIONS  OF  ME- 
TRIC TONS. 

X United  States.         3 —    —    —     Germany. 

2 United  Kingdom.   4—  .  —  .  —  .   France. 


flux  and  takes  up  the  earthy  impurities  with  which  it  mixes  forming 
slag.  These  furnaces  when  once  lighted  are  not  allowed  to  go  out  until 
it  is  necessary  to  build  a  new  furnace.  When  the  furnace  is  lighted 
the  blast  of  air  at  the  bottom  makes  a  great  heat,  the  ore  melts  and  falls 
to  the  bottom.  It  is  then  run  ofif  and  the  slag,  which  is  lighter,  floats 
on  the  top.  This  is  turned  aside  by  a  dam  in  the  sand  just  before  it 
reaches  the  moulds.  The  metal  flows  through  a  hole  below  the  dam 
into  the  numerous  moulds  of  sand,  forming  pieces  of  iron  about  a  hun- 
dred pounds  in  weight,  called  pigs. 


VS2 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


Cast  iron  is  only  fit  for  making  objects  that  are  cast  in  moulds, 
such  as  lamp  posts,  gas  pipes,  stoves  and  hollow  ware.  It  is  not  pure 
iron  but  has  carbon  in  it,  which  makes  it  so  brittle  that  it  cannot  be 
hammered  into  form. 

Wrought  iron  is  made  by  melting  the  cast  iron  in  another  kind  of 
furnace  and  stirring  it  up  so  that  air  can  reach  every  part  of  it.  This 
is  called  puddling,  and  in  this  way  impurities  like  carbon,  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus  are  burnt  out  of  it.  Wrought  iron  may  be  hammered  into 
bars,  rolled  into  plates,  or  drawn  into  wire.  Malleable  iron  is  a  kind 
of  cast  iron  which  has  been  made  tough  enough  to  be  hammered. 




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FIG.  59.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  STEEL  PRODUCTION 
IN  1899.  27  110  000  TONS. 

Each  square  =  ^  of  \<it. 


11 
II 

10 
9 
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[_ 

FIG.  60.— PRODUCTION  OF  STEEL  BY  PRINCIPA 
COUNTRIES  1873-1900  MILLIONS  OF  METRH 
TONS. 

1 United  States,    3 United  Kingdon 

3 Germany.  4 —    .   — France. 


Steel  contains  less  carbon  than  cast  iron  and  more  than  wrought 
iron.  It  was  formerly  made  by  placing  bars  of  wrought  iron  and  char- 
coal in  alternate  layers  in  a  fire  clay  trough,  and  exposing  them  to  a 
high  temperature  for  a  week  or  ten  days;  this  makes  fine  hard  steel. 
There  are  now  several  methods  of  making  steel.  The  Bessemer  method  : 
uses  the  molten  pig  iron,  putting  it  into  a  converter  and  blowing  cold 
air  through  holes  in  the  bottom  of  it  so  as  to  pass  through  the  iron  and 
burn  out  the  carbon  and  other  impurities.  In  some  modern  furnaces 
the  molten  metal  is  run  into  ladles  and  carried  to  the  converters  with- 


STEEL. 


mt  being  made  into  pigs.  Preparations  containing  manganese  are 
generally  mixed  with  it  to  prevent  brittleness;  spiegel-eisen  and 
erro-manganese  are  most  frequently  used.  The  Siemens-Martin 
)rocess  is  much  the  same  except  that  the  air  is  blown  over  the  metal 
md  not  through  it.  This  method  does  not  remove  the  phosphorus, 
md  therefore  ores  containing  the  one  two-hundredth  part  of  phosphorus 
:annot  be  used.  The  red  hematites  are  the  ores  principally  used  and 
ire  known  as  Bessemer  ores  for  this  reason.  They  are  found  in 
England,  a  little  in  Germany,  Sweden,  Styria,  Elba,  Spain,  and  Algeria, 
[n  the  United  States  eighty  per  cent  of  the  ores  are  red  hematite  and 
:ome  mainly  from  the  Lake  Superior  region.  Germany  and  other 
:ountries  not  possessing  Bessemer  ores  were  at  a  disadvantage  in  the 
manufacture  of  steel  until  the  open  hearth  "basic"  process  was  discov- 
ered. In  this  the  lining  of  the  converter  has  lime  mixed  with  it  to 
serve  as  a  base  with  which  the  phosphorus  will  combine,  thus  freeing 
the  iron  from  this  impurity. 

Iron  was  smelted  from  the  earliest  time.  Its  discovery  is  attrib- 
uted to  Tubal  Cain.  The  ancient  ironmasters  were  unable  to  work 
any  but  the  purest  ores.  Until  very  recently  charcoal  was  the  only 
fuel  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  because'  it  was  free  from  the 
impurities  found  in  coal.  In  England  Dud  Dudley,  in  1688,  used  coal 
as  a  fuel,  and  in  1730  coke  was  used.  In  the  United  States  bituminous 
and  anthracite  coal  were  largely  used,  but  now  coke  is  rapidly  taking 
their  place  because  of  the  absence  of  sulphur  which  has  been  burned 
out  of  it.  In  Sweden  and  Russia,  especially  in  the  Ural  mountains, 
charcoal  is  still  the  only  fuel  used. 

The  United  Kingdom  is  the  largest  exporter  of  pig  iron ;  the 
United  States,  although  second,  exports  only  about  one  fourth  as 
much.  The  United  States  produces  more  than  twice  as  much  steel 
as  the  United  Kingdom,  and  more  than  the  United  Kingdom  and 
Germany  combined.  In  the  United  States  three  fourths  of  the  steel  is 
made  by  the  Bessemer  process.  In  the  United  Kingdom  one  third,  and 
in  Germany  ninety  per  cent,  is  made  by  the  hearth  process,  as  they  use 
mainly  the  ores  containing  a  large  percentage  of  phosphorus. 

About  one  half  of  all  the  United  States  pig  iron  is  made  in 
Pennsylvania;  Ohio,  Illinois  and  Alabama  are  the  next  largest  pro- 


134  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

ducers.  Pennsylvania  also  leads  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  Alle- 
gheny county  produces  over  three  and  a  quarter  million  tons  of  pig 
iron  and  over  four  million  tons  of  steel.  The  enormous  production 
of  pig  iron  and  steel  in  Pennsylvania  is  brought  about  by  the  large 
quantities  of  Lake  Superior  iron  ore  brought  into  Pittsburg  in  order  to 
be  near  the  great  coke  ovens  in  the  Connellsville  and  other  nearby 
districts.  While  the  United  States  produces  more  pig  iron  and  steel 
than  any  other  nation,  the  United  Kingdom  exported  three  times  as 
much  unwrought  iron  and  steel  as  any  other  country  in  1900. 

The  ironmasters  of  eastern  Pennsylvania,  Baltimore,  and  other 
ports  near  the  Atlantic  coast,  are  able  to  obtain  the  ores  needed  to  mix 
with  their  own  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  from  Cuba,  Spain, 
Italy,  Greece,  and  even  from  India.  In  1900  nearly  a  million  tons  of 
ore  were  imported,  while  only  forty  thousand  tons  of  ore  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  tons  of  pig  iron  were  exported. 

England  has  heretofore  been  able  to  maintain  her  position  as  a 
great  iron  and  steel  producing  country  by  the  nearness  of  her  iron 
industries  to  the  sea.  This  has  enabled  her  to  receive  from  Spain  and 
other  iron-producing  countries  rich  ores  at  low  cost  to  supply  her 
needs.  This  with  the  supply  of  red  hematite  from  Cumberland  and 
Lancaster  mines,  gave  her  the  means  of  producing  Bessemer  steel. 
The  basic  process,  however,  has  enabled  Germany  to  utilize  her  ores 
which  contain  a  high  percentage  of  phosphorus,  and  that  country  now 
ranks  high  as  a  producer  of  steel.  This  process  will  also  enable  the 
United  Kingdom  to  produce  steel  from  low  grade  ores  of  which  there 
is  an  abundant  supply  in  their  own  country ;  it  will  also  cause  steel  to 
be  produced  in  parts  of  the  United  States  not  convenient  to  the  red 
hematite  of  the  Lake  Superior  region.  The  United  States  has  attained 
its  present  position  of  being  the  largest  producer  of  iron  and  steel  by 
reducing  the  entire  process  of  iron  and  steel  production,  from  the  mine 
to  the  consumer,  to  machine  methods  on  a  large  scale.  This  applies  to 
the  transportation  of  both  materials  and  products  and  to  production 
in  all  its  phases. 

GOLD. 

Gold  is  the  most  widely  sought  product  of  the  earth.    It  occurs  in 
nature  in  the  metallic  state  and  is  found  in  rich  deposits,  called  placers, 


GOLD. 


135 


imbedded  in  the  gravel  and  sand  of  a  stream  and  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  g-old-bearing  rocks.  The  sand  or  powdered  ore  being  placed 
in  water  which  is  kept  agitated,  the  gold,  being  heavier  than  the  other 
material,  sinks  to  the  bottom.  The  lighter  matter  which  floats  off  is 
called  tailings.  Gold  is  also  found  in  small  particles  or  in  veins  or  nug- 
gets scattered  through  a  mass  of  other  rocks  such  as  slate,  porphyry, 
or  quartz.  In  these  mines  a  mill  is  used  in  which  the  rock  is  crushed 
in  breakers  to  about  the  size  of  an  ^gg.  It  is  then  passed  through 
"stamps"  to  be  pulverized  in  water  to  a  pulp.  This  pulp  is  passed 
over  copper  plates  covered  with  silver  amalgam  to  catch  the  fine  par- 
ticles of  gold.  The  pulp  is  then  delivered  to  the  concentrators  which 
hold  back  the  particles  of  gold  and  push  forward  the  tailings.  Chlori- 
nation  is  a  chemical  action  and  depends  for  its  success  on  the  dissolving 
action  of  chlorine  on  gold.  It  is  also  obtained  sometimes  as  a  by-pro- 
duct in  copper  and  silver  mining.  Rich  ores  go  to  the  smelters  direct, 
other  ores  are  treated  by  chemicals  and  gases  in  different  ways.  Low 
grade  ores  after  having  been 
ground  to  powder  at  the  mill, 
are  sometimes  put  into  a  tank 
and  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  po- 
tassium is  allowed  to  flow 
through  the  tank.  The  gold 
combining  with  the  cyanide 
flows  out  with  the  solution  into 
a  box  containing  shavings  of 
zinc.  The  gold  leaves  the  cyan- 
ide and  sticks  to  the  zinc  from 
which  it  is  afterwards  washed, 
and  in  this  way  all  the  gold  is 
secured.  This  cyanide  process 
has  enabled  many  mines  to  be 
operated  profitably  which  were 
formerly  valueless;  it  is  there- 
fore an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  gold-mining  in  regions 
containing  low  grade  ores. 


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THE  WORLD  1863  TO  1899  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
DOLLARS . 


Gold, 
Silver. 


186 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


Gold  has  been  from  a  very  early  period  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
show  utensils  and  ornaments  and  as  a  medium  of  exchange.  Not  all 
the  gold  mined  in  any  year  enters  into  the  coinage  of  the  commer- 
cial world ;  about  twenty  five  per  cent  is  used  in  the  arts  and  in  making 
gold  leaf  for  gilding.  In  making  gold  leaf  it  is  hammered  so  thin 
that  two  hundred  thousand  leaves  would  only  make  an  inch  thick. 
It  is  also  used  largely  in  dentistry  and  in  the  manufacture  of  jewelry. 
Gold  when  pure  is  nearly  as  soft  as  lead;  it  is  therefore  mixed  with 
silver,  copper,  and  other  materials  in  order  to  make  it  available  for  use 
in  coinage  and  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  of  jewelry  and 
ornament. 

The  world's  production  of  gold  has  trebled  in  the  last  fifteen  years. 
In  1899  it  was  valued  at  $313000000;    in  1900,  owing  to  the  war  in 

South  Africa,  which  cut  off  the 
?P-°^°l°i\  I  supply  from  the  Transvaal 
mines,  the  production  amounted 
to  only  $256000000  in  value. 
The  three  great  gold-producing 
countries  are  the  Transvaal,  the 
United  States,  and  Australia; 
next  in  importance  are  Canada 
and  Russia.  Other  important 
gold-producing  countries  are 
British  India,  Mexico,  China,  the 
Guianas,  Colombia,  Hungary,*^ 
Brazil,  Chile,  Japan,  Korea,  and 
Rhodesia.  In  1900  the  value  of 
the  United  States  production 
was  $78  000  000 ;  of  Australasia 
$73  000  000 ;  of  Canada  $28- 
000000,  one  fifth  of  which  was  from  the  Yukon  region;  of  Russia 
$23  000  000,  including  gold  from  the  Siberian  mines ;  British  India 
$9  000  000 ;  Mexico  $8  ooo  000.  The  Transvaal  mines  when  once  they 
are  again  in  full  operation  will  probably  produce  $100000000  worth 
annually,  and  at  this  time  (1901)  they  nearly  all  lie  within  an  area  of 
one  hundred  square  miles. 


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FIG.  62  -GOLD  AND  SILVER  PRODUCTION  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  1863  TO  1899  IN  MILLIONS 
OF  DOLLARS. 

Gold. 

Silver. 


SILVER.  \^        .x^qS*^  1^'J' 

Prior  to  1837  gold-mining  in  this  country  was  carried  on  almost 
entirely  in  the  South,  but  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in 
1848  that  state  became  the  mining  centre.  Now  Colorado  mines  one 
third  of  all  the  gold  produced  in  the  United  States,  California  being 
second  and  Alaska  third  in  the  value  of  the  product.  All  the  other 
Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  States  also  produce  gold ;  some  is  obtained 
from  auriferous  quartz  and  gold-bearing  gravels,  and  large  quantities 
are  obtained  from  the  silver  mines.  In  Australasia,  West  Australia 
produced  one  third  of  the  gold  of  1900;  Victoria,  Queensland,  New 
South  Wales,  and  New  Zealand  also  produce  large  quantities 

SILVER. 

Silver  is  not  often  found  in  a  pure  state.  The  silver  of  commerce 
is  obtained  from  the  silver  sulphide  and  chloride  ores,  and  from  the 
sulphide  of  lead  which  usually  has  silver  in  it,  also  as  a  by-product 
in  zinc,  copper,  and  gold  mining.  The  ores  of  silver  are  roasted  and 
then  crushed  to  powder  by  machinery,  and  mercury  or  quicksilver  is 
mixed  with  it.  This  unites  with  the  silver  in  the  powder  and  forms  a 
pasty  mass  called  amalgam.  This  is  then  placed  in  closed  iron  vessels 
and  heated  to  270°  when  the  mercury  passes  ofif  through  a  pipe  as 
vapor,  leaving  the  mass  of  silver.  Gold  ores  are  sometimes  treated  in 
the  same  way. 

Silver  is  the  next  in  importance  to  gold  for  use  in  the  arts ;  it  is  also 
used  for  coinage,  about  one  sixth  of  the  production  being  used  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  largely  used  for  table  ware  the  tarnished  appearance  of 
which  sometimes  seen  is  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphurous  gases.  Like 
gold  it  is  too  soft  for  these  purposes  unless  hardened  ISy  mixture  with 
copper  or  other  metals.  Enormous  quantities  of  silver-plated  ware  are 
made  by  depositing  a  thin  coat  of  silver  on  some  cheaper  metal.  Nitrate 
of  silver  and  chloride  of  silver  are  used  largely  in  photography. 

The  world's  production  of  silver  in  1900  amounted  to  $112  000  000 
in  value  at  the  mines.  The  ,United  States  produced  $36  000  000  worth, 
Mexico  $34000000  worth.  Other  important  silver-producing  coun- 
tries are  Australasia,  Bolivia,  Chile,  Peru,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Canada. 
In  the  United  States,  Nevada  was  formerly  the  great  silver-mining 
state;  in  1877  the  Comstock  lode  produced  $21  000000  worth  of  silver 


188 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


and  $14  000  000  worth  of  gold.  Colorado  now  produces  one  third  of 
the  output  of  the  United  States,  followed  by  Montana,  Utah,  and  Idaho 
in  the  order  named.  Refiners  in  the  United  States  also  produced  from 
foreign  ores  and  bullion  $28000000  worth  of  silver;  ninety  five  per 
cent  of  this  ore  was  from  Mexico. 

The  precious  metals  of  the  United  States  are  nearly  all  found  in 
the  Sierra  and  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Black  Hills  being  the  only  im- 
portant exception.  In  South  America  they  are  found  also  in  the  west 
in  the  Andean  countries. 

COPPER. 

Copper  was  probably  the  first  metal  employed  by  man.  It  is  found 
native  in  strings,  grains,  plates,  or  masses.  It  is  also  obtained  from 
various  ores,  such  as  the  oxides  of  copper  and  the  sulphide  of  copper. 

Malachite  found  in  Siberia  and 
elsewhere  is  a  green  carbonate  of 
copper.  Gold  and  silver  are 
often  found  associated  with  it, 
and  these  often  make  its  mining 
profitable  where  without  them  it 
would  not  be.  Copper  has  great 
malleability  and  ductility  and  is 
a  good  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity.  Combined  with  zinc 
it  makes  the  alloy  brass,  com- 
bined with  tin  it  makes  bronze, 
gun-metal,  and  bell-metal.  Large 
quantities  of  wire  are  made  from 
it.  Its  most  important  present 
use  is  in  electricity  as  a  conduc- 
tor of  electric  currents. 
3 United  States.  In    j^oQ    the    world's  pro- 

duction of  copper  amounted  to  four  hundred  and  eighty  thou- 
sand tons  of  which  the  United  States  produced  two  hundred 
and  sixty  eight  thousand  tons,  Spain  sixty  three  thousand  tons, 
Japan,  Chile,  Germany,  Australasia,  and  Mexico  each  from 
twenty  to  thirty  thousand  tons.     In  the  United  States,  Montana,  Ari- 


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FIG.  63. -COPPER  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  WORLD, 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  OF  OTHER 
COUNTRIES,  1  880  TO  1  900,  IN  THOUSANDS 
OF  TONS. 

r World. 

2_  .  _  .  _  .   Other  Countries. 


COPPER.  18© 

zona  and  Michigan  produce  the  largest  quantities.  The  Anaconda 
mine  in  Montana  is  the  most  productive  in  the  world  and  at  the  present 
time  the  ore  sometimes  occurs  in  veins  ten  feet  in  width  in  granite.  In 
Arizona  the  deposits  consist  of  oxidized  ore.  The  Calumet  and  Hecla  is 
the  most  productive  mine  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  and  employs  five 
thousand  men  to  work  it.  There  it  is  found  in  masses  sometimes 
weighing  from  three  to  six  hundred  tons.  While  copper  deposits  are 
widely  distributed,  all  the  actively  working  mines  in  the  world  would 
not  cover  an  area  of  five  hundred  square  miles.  There  has  been  a 
steady  increase  in  the  demand  for  copper  which  so  far  has  been  met 
by  the  increase  in  production, — from  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
tons  in  1880  to  nearly  five  hundred  thousand  tons  in  1900.  If  this 
demand  continues  to  increase,  it  can  only  be  met  by  the  discovery  of 
new  mines  in  Australasia  or  some  other  little  explored  region,  or  by 
using  the  low  grade  ores  which  cannot  now  be  profitably  worked. 

The  United  States  is  the  principal  exporting  country  and  exported 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons,  or  over  $57  000  000  worth  in  1900. 
Most  of  it  was  in  the  form  of  pigs,  ingots,  and  bars,  very  little  ore  being 
exported.  Spain  exported  nine  hundred  thousand  tons  of  very  low 
grade  ores  valued  at  $6  000  000.  Germany,  Japan,  Chile,  Australasia, 
and  Mexico  are  the  other  important  exporting  countries.  American 
refiners  handle  ore  "and  matte,  or  smelted  copper,  from  Canada  and 
Mexico  and  even  from  Australasia  and  Japan,  the  refined  product  being 
re-exported.  The  reason  of  this  is  the  high  state  of  perfection  to  which 
the  electrolytic  process  is  carried  on  in  this  country.  The  metal  is  cast 
from  the  converter  into  bars  of  convenient  size  which  are  suspended 
in  a  vat  filled  with  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate ;  on  both  sides  of  the 
bar  is  a  thin  plate  of  copper.  A  current  of  electricity  is  then  passed 
through  the  solution,  under  the  action  of  which  the  unrefined  copper 
is  dissolved  atom  by  atom  carried  across  to  the  plate  of  pure  copper 
and  then  deposited  as  refined  metal.  The  impurities  consisting  of  sil- 
ver and  gold  fall  to  the  floor  and  when  melted  into  bullion  sell  for 
many  times  the  cost  of  the  operation.  In  1900  fifty-eight  per  cent  of  the 
production  of  the  United  States  was  sent  to  foreign  countries.  Nearlv 
all  the  domestic  copper  exported  goes  to  Europe;  France,  Germany, 
and  the  United  Kingdom  are  the  largest  purchasers.    Nearly  all  Ameri- 


140  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

can  copper  is  exported  from  New  York  and  Baltimore  as  the  two 
largest  refineries  are  located  in  these  cities.  The  world's  price,  how- 
ever, is  fixed  at  Boston,  that  city  being  the  home  office  of  the  directory 
of  the  great  copper  companies  in  this  country.  In  1899  the  United 
Kingdom  imported  two  hundred  and  seven  thoifand  tons  of  ore,  or 
regulus,  and  sixty  four  thousand  tons  of  imwrought  copper.  •  The 
United  States  imported  thirty  six  thousand  tons  of  ore,  or  regulus,  and 
forty  thousand  tons  of  unwrought  copper,  altogether  valued  at 
$15  000000. 

LEAD. 

Most  lead  is  obtained  from  the  sulphide  of  lead,  or  galena.  This  is 
frequently  found  associated  with  sulpate  of  zinc,  or  zinc  blende,  forming 
the  zinc-lead  ores.  Silver  is  also  often  found  with  lead  and  this  makes 
the  mining  of  it  profitable  when  it  would  not  yield  sufficient  return  by 
itself.  Galena  often  occurs  in  the  form  of  crystals.  Lead  is  readily 
cut  with  a  knife;  it  is  malleable  and  can  be  made  into  sheets.  It  is 
largely  used  for  water  pipes  and  tanks.  Pewter  and  solder  are  com- 
posed of  lead  and  tin ;  type  metal  is  made  of  lead  and  antimony.  Arsenic 
is  mixed  v/ith  lead  in  making  shot  and  bullets  to  harden  it.  Over 
$10000000  worth  of  white  lead  for  painters'  use  is  made  annually  in 
the  United  States.  Litharge,  or  yellow  lead  oxide,  is  used  in  glass  mak- 
ing. The  world's  output  of  lead  in  1899  was  seven  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  thousand  tons,  of  which  the  United  States  produced  over  one 
fourth,  Spain  one  fourth,  Germany  one  sixth,  Mexico  one  tenth.  Spain 
exports  more  lead  than  all  other  countries.  The  United  Kingdom  im- 
ports more  than  any  other  country  and  is  followed  by  the  United  States 
and  France.    The  imports  of  the  United  States  are  mostly  from  Mexico. 

ZINC. 

Zinc  is  generally  obtained  from  sphalerite,  or  blende,  sulphide  of 
zinc.  Zinc  blende  usually  occurs  with  galena.  Crude  metallic  zinc 
is  known  in  the  market  as  spelter.  Zinc  is  not  easily  corroded.  It 
is  deposited  in  thin  layers  on  iron  to  make  the  galvanized  iron  of 
commerce.  Zinc  white,  used  as  a  substitute  for  white  lead,  is  made 
by  heating  the  zinc  in  the  air  when  it  becomes  oxide  of  zinc.     Brass 


AL  UMINUM-MERCUR  Y.  141 

and  white  metal  are  both  compounds  of  zinc  with  copper.  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  the  United  States  are  the  largest  producers  of  metallic 
zinc.  In  the  United  States  the  largest  zinc  mines  are  in  the  Joplin 
district  in  southwest  Missouri  and  extending  into  Kansas.  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  South  and  West  Virginia  supply  the  eastern  works,  while 
the  Joplin  district  supplies  the  western.  The  zinc  oxide  produced  in  the 
United  States  is  over  $3  000  000  in  value.  The  exports  of  zinc  and 
oxide  amount  to  over  $1  500  000. 

ALUMINUM. 

Aluminum  is  the  most  abundant  metal  and  the  third  most  common 
element.  It  is  found  in  ordinary  earths  and  clay  and  in  rocks  like  feld- 
spar, mica,  and  granite,  these  being  in  the  main  silicates  of  alumina. 
Its  extraction  from  these  however  is  unprofitable.  It  was  formerly 
obtained  chiefly  from  cryolite  found  in  the  west  of  Greenland.  Its 
principal  source  at  present  is  bauxite  found  mainly  in  France,  the 
United  States,  Italy,  and  United  Kingdom.  The  United  States, 
Switzerland,  France  and  United  Kingdom  are  the  largest  producers 
of  aluminum.  The  production  of  the  United  States  amounted  to 
over  $2  000  000  in  value  in  1900.  It  is  the  lightest  metal  in  common 
use  and  is  malleable  and  ductile.  It  is  used  where  light  weight  and 
strength  are  desired.  Racing  boats  and  steam  launches  have  been 
made  out  of  it,  also  toys,  ornaments,  and  culinary  utensils.  Aluminum 
wire  is  also  being  used  for  conducting  electric  power.  Fifty  years  ago 
aluminum  sold  for  ninety  dollars  a  pound,  now  it  can  be  obtained  for 
thirty  cents  a  pound  and  bids  fair  to  take  the  place  of  copper  in  elec- 
trical work  and  for  many  other  purposes  during  the  next  ten  years. 

MERCURY. 

Mercury  is  obtained  mainly  from  its  sulphide,  cinnabar.  Its 
liquid  form,  quicksilver,  is  familiar  from  its  use  in  thermometers,  and 
barometers.  It  is  heavier  than  iron  and  will  remain  in  a  liquid  state 
at  a  temperature  above  forty  degrees  below  zero.  The  world's  total 
production  is  only  four  thousand  tons.  Spain,  the  United  States, 
Austria,  and  Italy  are  the  principal  producing  countries.  The  Almaden 
mines  in  Spain,  and  the  New  Almaden  and  other  mines  in  California 
are  the  principal  sources  of  supply.     The  United  States  exports  one 


142  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

half  the  mercury  it  produces.  The  most  important  use  of  quicksilver 
is  in  the  extraction  of  gold  and  silver  by  amalgamation.  It  is  also  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine  and  caustic  soda  electrolitically.  In  the 
form  of  calomel  it  has  been  used  as  a  medicine  for  a  long  time. 

MANGANESE. 

Manganese  is  obtained  principally  from  its  oxides  and  is  found 
associated  with  iron,  zinc,  or  silver.  It  is  always  used  in  the  form  of 
an  alloy.  The  largest  producing  countries  are  Russia,  the  United  States, 
and  Spain.  In  the  United  States,  New  Jersey,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  Colorado  produce  the  largest  amount.  In  1900  the  United  States 
imported  over  three  hundred  and  thirty-three  thousand  tons  which  was 
more  than  the  total  consumption  in  1899. 

Manganese  is  used  to  color  glass  and  pottery.  The  black  oxide 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bleaching  powder.  Nearly  nine  tenths 
of  all  manganese  is  used  in  the  iron  industries.  Spiegel-eisen  con- 
taining less  than  twenty  five  per  cent,  and  ferro  manganese  containing 
more  than  twenty  five  per  cent,  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  to 
restore  the  carbon  and  produce  other  important  effects. 

ANTIMONY. 

Antimony  occurs  very  rarely ;  it  is  obtained  largely  from  the  sul- 
phides. France,  Hungary,  Italy,  Mexico  are  the  largest  producers. 
In  1900  the  United  States  imported  three  thousand  tons  of  ore  and 
eighteen  hundred  tons  of  regulus,  which  was  more  than  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  in  that  year.  Antimony  imparts  hardness 
to  lead  and  tin.  Britannia  metal  is  tin  and  antimony.  Type  metal  is 
lead  and  antimony 

ARSENIC. 

Arsenic  is  a  rare  metal ;  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  are  the 
principal  producers.  The  glass  trade  and  paris-green  makers  consume 
large  quantities.  The  white  arsenic  of  the  druggist  is  the  oxide  of 
the  metal.     It  is  also  used  for  colormg  wall  paper  and  other  purposes. 


TIN-NICKEL.  143 

TIN. 

Tin  is  the  only  important  metal  not  found  in  the  United  States 
in  paying  quantities.  The  tin  mines  of  Cornwall,  England,  which  have 
been  worked  for  over  two  thousand  years,  were  formerly  the  only 
source  of  supply.  The  Straits  Settlements  mines  in  the  state  of  Perak 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula  within  an  area  of  twenty  square  miles  produced 
sixty  two  per  cent  of  the  world's  product  of  seventy  four  thousand 
tons  in  1899.  The  mines  of  Banka  and  Billiton,  two  islands  opposite 
Perak,  produce  eighteen  per  cent;  English  and  Bolivian  mines  follow 
next  in  amount  of  tin  produced.  In  1900  the  United  States  imported 
nearly  $20000000  worth  of  tin  in  bars,  blocks,  and  pigs,  of  which 
$10  000  000  was  from  the  East  Indies  and  $7  000  000  from  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  manufacture  of  tin  plate,  which  is  so  useful  in  the 
manufacture  of  tin-ware  and  tin  cans,  consists  in  coating  iron  with  tin 
to  exclude  air  and  prevent  the  iron  from  rusting.  The  United  States 
imported  $35000000  worth  of  tin  plate  in  1891  and  only  $5000000 
worth  in  1900,  which,  however,  was  nearly  double  the  value  and  forty 
per  cent  more  in  quantity  than  the  amount  imported  in  1899,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  three  times  more  tin  plate  was  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  than  was  imported.  The  United  Kingdom  is  the 
only  country  in  Europe  exporting  tin  to  any  amount.  Of  the  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty-six  thousand  tons  of  tin  plate  exported  by  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  United  States  purchased  one  fourth. 

NICKEL. 

Nickel  is  generally  found  associated  with  cobalt.  The  principal 
mines  are  in  New  Caledonia  and  Canada.  The  great  output  of  nickel 
in  this  country  is  from  the  ores  imported  from  Canada.  The  chief 
producing  mines  in  the  United  States  are  in  Missouri.  Nickel  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  jewelry,  in  coinage,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  German  silver.  Nickel  plating  also  consumes  large  quantities  of 
this  metal.  The  other  important  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  nickel 
steel  used  for  armor  plate  and  for  the  shafts  and  other  parts  of  machin- 
ery. By  the  addition  of  four  per  cent  of  nickel  to  steel  its  toughness 
and  tensile  strength  are  increased  very  much. 


144  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

PLATINUM. 

Platinum  is  generally  found  in  gold-bearing  gravels;  only  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  and  one  half  ounces  were  found  in  the 
United  States  in  1900.  The  main  supply  comes  from  the  Siberian  side 
of  the  Ural  mountains.  Australia  and  Colombia  also  furnish  small 
quantities.  Platinum  is  very  ductile  and  malleable,  not  affected  by  acids 
and  melts  at  1750°  C.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  crucibles  and 
in  dentistry,  but  incandescent  electric  lamps  use  the  largest  part  of  the 
present  supply.  The  United  States  imports  nearly  eight  thousand 
pounds  of  platinum  valued  at  $1  770  000,  mostly  from  the  United  King- 
dom, Germany,  and  France. 

BISMUTH. 

Bismuth  is  a  rare  metal  used  as  an  alloy.  It  is  found  in  Saxony, 
also  in  Peru  and  in  Australia.  It  is  used  for  coloring  porcelain  and 
also  in  certain  forms  as  a  cosmetic  and  a  medicine.  As  an  alloy  it  is 
used  to  increase  the  fusibility  of  certain  metals.  About  $225  000  worth 
was  imported  in  1900  mainly  from  England. 

Non-Metallic  Mineral  Products. 
COAL. 

Coal  has  been  formed  from  the  vast  quantities  of  vegetable  matter 
which  accumulated  in  various  geological  periods.  The  largest  deposits 
were  formed  in  the  carboniferous  age,  when  vegetation  was  most  luxu- 
riant. This  vegetaj^le  matter  rotted  and  settled  for  ages  and,  under 
the  combined  influences  of  heat,  moisture,  and  pressure,  became  the 
great  beds  of  coal  which  are  found  in  nearly  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Coal  is  composed  of  carbon,  volatile  matter,  sulphur,  and  ash.  The 
energy  and,  therefore,  the  value  of  coal  is  in  the  combined  carbon  and 
volatile  matters  which  it  contains.  The  heating  power  is  obtained 
mainly  from  the  carbon  and  the  flame  from  the  hydrogen  of  the  volatile 
matter.  Coal  passes  through  various  stages  in  its  progress  from  vege- 
table matter  to  hard  coal.  In  its  transformation  the  moisture  is  first 
driven  out,  then  the  volatile  matter,  until  finally  it  consists  of  over 


COAL. 


145 


ninety  per  cent  of  carbon.  Peat,  which  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
globe  and  used  as  a  fuel  in  Ireland,  Holland,  and  other  countries,  is 
not  valued  as  a  fuel  when  coal  is  available,  as  it  has  very  little  carbon. 
Graphite,  another  form  of  product  of  carbon,  may  be  mentioned 
here  in  passing,  although  it  has  none  of  the  uses  of  coal  as  a  fuel.  It 
is  found  in  commercial  quantities  in  Rhode  Island  and  some  other 
places  in  this  country  as  well  as  in  other  countries,  and  contains  ninety 
nine  per  cent  pure  carbon.     That  of  Rhode  Island  is  used  chiefly  to 


FIG.    64.— COAL   PRODUCING    AREAS   OF  THE    UNITED  STATES. 


make  stove  polish,  while  other  deposits  furnish  the  graphite  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils.— [See  Plumbago.] 

There  are  two  broad  classifications  of  coal  which  are  subdivided 
according  to  the  amount  of  carbon  or  volatile  matter  they  contain. 
Anthracite,  or  hard  coal,  contains  little  volatile  matter,  not  more  than 
four  per  cent,  but  it  is  high  in  carbon.  It  is  clean,  ignites  with  diffi- 
culty, burns  with  a  short  flame  without  smoke,  but  gives  an  intense, 
concentrated  heat.  Bituminous,  or  soft  coal,  contains  a  large  amount 
of  volatile  matter  varying  from  eighteen  to  thirty  six  per  cent ;  it  is 
easily  broken,  ignites  eavJy  with  long  reddish  flame,  and  gives  off  con- 


146 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


siderable  smoke  with  heat  that  is  diffused  over  the  mass.  Anthracite 
coals  are  divided  into  red  ash  and  white  ash  coals  from  the  color  of  the 
ashes.  Bituminous  coals  are  also  divided  into  steaming,  gas,  and 
coking  coals,  sometimes  called  semi-bituminous  and  bituminous.  Good 
steaming  coals  do  not  contain  more  than  eighteen  per  cent  of  volatile 
matter,  while  gas  coals  sometimes  contain  more  than  twice  as  much. 
An  example  of  the  proportions  of  the  carbon  and  volatile  matter  is 
given  in  the  table  below : 


2'^ 

as 

S« 

•3 

0  0 

c  0    • 

Wi 

•"    ..."TD 

Xi 

i" 

ill 

< 

to 

ti 

gl^E 

c 

i 

(U 

4; 

Ph 

M  8u 

in  oU 

e-i 

u 

Carbon 

6.49 

59- 

78. 

87. 

89.50 

Volatile  matter 

13.84 

3540 

18. 

3.60 

.40 

Sulphur 

.60 

•50 

■6s 

.80 

Ash 

.78 

4.00 

3.00 

5-90 

9.00 

Moisture 

78.89 

I.CX) 

•50 

2.85 

•30 

•99 


.01 


The  largest  coal  areas  are  found  in  the  United  States  and  China, 
each  having  over  two  hundred    thousand    square    miles.     India    has 

thirty  five  thousand,  Russia 
twenty  seven  thousand,  the  Unit- 
ed Kingdom  nine  thousand,  Ger- 
many three  thousand  six  hun- 
dred, France  eighteen  hundred, 
'and  Belgium  eight  hundred 
square  miles  of  coal  area.  Coal 
is  also  found  in  all  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  and  in  Japan, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  Mexico,  and  South 
America.  The  coal-producing 
countries  do  not,  however,  fol- 
low in  the  same  order  as  the 
above.      The    superior    facilities 

FIG.  65.— WORLD'S  TOTAL  COAL  PRODUCTION  IN  r^^    f  ^^„o«^^^4-o4.:^«     ^^'^'  t       ^ 

1899  797  062  775  SHORT  TONS.  ^^^  transportation  arismg  from 


■ 

. 

-1 

^ 

. 

"" 

■. 

U 

N 

/ 

T 

£ 

D 

5 

T 

A 

T 

£ 

5 

- 

- 

. 

..... 

1 

1      ' 



..... 

i. 

u 

N 

/ 

T 

£ 

D 

M 

/ 

N 

& 

D 

0 

M 

* 

i 

i 

6 

£ 

^ 

M 

A 

N 

V 

1 

. 

AU6 

TR 

/Ar  h 

(//\ 

V6. 

AR 

Y 

i 

i 

\b 

E 

L  \G 

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ff 

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£ 

1     1 

RVS5/A  \      \ 

- 

-J 

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L. 

L 

jimR 

COVf^TRIES 

L- 

COAL. 


147 


nearness  of  its  coal  basins  to  the  sea  as  wen  as  the  existence  of  iron 
ore  near  the  coal  mines  which  has  brought  about  the  wonderful  devel- 
opment of  its  manufactures,  made  Great  Britain  for  many  years  the 
greatest  coal-producing  nation  in  the  world. 

The  world's  production  of  coal  is  increasing  rapidly.  In  1899 
it  was  seven  hundred  and  ninety  seven  million  tons — more  than  nine 
times  what  it  was  in  1850.  Pennsylvania  produced  more  coal  in  1899 
than  the  whole  world  did  fifty 
years  ago.  The  United  States 
which  has  long  been  the  greatest 
consumer  of  coal,  with  its  two 
hundred  and  fifty  three  million 
tons  in  1899  became  the  greatest 
producer  of  coal.  The  United 
Kingdom  produced  two  hundred 
and  forty  six  million  tons,  and 
Germany  one  hundred  and  forty 
nine  million  tons.  These  three 
are  the  great  coal-producing 
nations ;  following  these  are 
Austria-Hungary,  France,  and 
Belgium.  All  other  nations  of 
the  world  produce  less  than  five 
per  cent  of  the  total  production. 

The  United  Kingdom  ex- 
ported more  than  forty  one  mil- 
lion tons  of  coal  in  1899,  which 

is  more  than  the  combined  exports  of  coal  from  all  other  nations. 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  Belgium,  Sweden,  are  the  largest  coal- 
importing  countries.  Most  of  the  coal  entering  into  foreign  com- 
merce is  bituminous,  which  is  the  coal  chiefly  used  by  ocean  steamers 
and  in  the  manufacturing  industries  throughout  the  world.  Large 
quantities  are  stored  at  convenient  points  along  the  lines  of  ocean 
travel,  called  coaling  ports,  and  steamers  stopping  at  these  points  supply 
themselves  with  coal.  Bituminous  coal  is  cheaper  at  the  mines  in  the 
United  States  than  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  in  some  cases  cheaper 


170 

€& 

70 

75iao 

85190 

31 

91 

33:3+ 

?.^, 

96:37^98 

93;00 

01  010304 

J  70 

r" 

i 

..... 

^ 

1 

1 

Zj 

_« 

2 

lis 
110 

/ 

110 
135 
18O 
|G5 
\50 
135 
liO 
lOS 
90 
75 
60 
« 
30 
\S 

/ 

r 

^^ 

^ 

r 

/ 

/ 

V. 

r 

iBO 

/ 

y 

^ 

^^ 

Its 

150 
135 
110 
105 

90 
75 
60 
45 
SO 
IS 

. 

/ 

/ 

/ 

f 

1 

J 

3 

/ 

/ 

>• 

ir' 

■^ 

0^ 

/ 

" 

^* 

/ 

r 

y 

^ 

1 

■-/ 

/: 

5 

•* 

-/ 

^ 

...- 

- 

'^ 

.0- 

-0 

4 

- 

^ 

^•='=" 

^ 

o' 

! 

_ 

FIG.  66.— COAL  PRODUCTION  PRINCIPAL  COUN- 
TRIES 1868-1900  IN  MILLIONS  OF  SHORT 
TONS. 

1 United  States. 

3 United  Kingdom. 

3—   — Germany. 

i— France. 

5 Austria. 


148  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

f.  o.  b.  at  Atlantic  ports,  but  the  high  rates  for  ocean  freight  has  made 
the  cost  of  American  coal  for  export  greater  than  that  of  the  English 
in  foreign  markets. 

Coal  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  and  by  Aristotle.  It  was  used  in 
Britain  before  Caesar's  invasion  and  has  been  used  in  China  for  cen- 
turies. Coal  was  first  used  for  manufacturing  purposes  in  England  in 
1612,  but  it  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century  that  its  rapid  increase 
of  production  took  place.  The  first  coal  used  in  the  United  States  was 
in  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1650.  Anthracite  was  discovered  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  1766,  but  it  was  not  until  the  War  of  181 2  had  cut  off  other 
sources  of  supply  that  its  value  as  coal  became  generally  known.  In 
the  United  States  there  are  six  coal  basins,  the  largest  extending  from 
the  Alleghany  mountains  to  the  Missouri  river  and  south  from  the 
Lakes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  river.  This  basin  would  cover  half  of 
Europe.  The  anthracite  coal  is  obtained  mainly  from  an  area  of  four 
hundred  and  eighty  square  miles  in  the  middle  and  eastern  parts  of 
Pennsylvania  in  districts  known  as  the  Lehigh,  the  Wyoming,  and  the 
Schuylkill  valleys.  The  value  of  the  fifty  four  million  tons  produced 
in  this  region  is  $88000000  at  the  mines,  which  is  more  than  the  value 
of  the  product  of  all  the  gold  mines  in  the  United  States. 

Anthracite  coal,  because  of  the  absence  of  smoke,  is  largely  used 
as  a  domestic  coal  and  on  locomotives  of  passenger  trains.  Large 
quantities  are  also  used  in  the  manufacturing  industries  which  are 
located  so  as  to  obtain  it  as  cheaply  as  bituminous  coal.  The  anthracite 
mines  are  almost  entirely  owned  by  the  railroad  corporations,  and  the 
transportation  of  coal  forms  an  important  part  of  their  traffic.  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Buffalo  are  the  great  distributing  points,  and 
the  railroads  from  the  anthracite  coal  regions  to  these  points  are  knowHj 
as  the  * 'anthracite  coal  roads." 

About  one  hundred  and  ninety  three  million  tons  of  bituminous 
coal,  valued  at  $167000000  at  the  mines,  was  produced  in  the  Unite( 
States  duing  1899.  While  anthracite  coal  occurs  very  rarely  outside  of 
Pennsylvania,  bituminous  coal  is  found  in  most  of  the  states  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  also  the  principal  coal  found  in  United  Kingdom 
and  in  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  other  countries.    In  the  United 


COAL.  143 

States,  Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  producer  of  bituminous  coal,  fol- 
lowed by  Illinois,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Alabama,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri,  and  other  states.  The  first  four  states  produce  about 
three  fourths  of  all  the  coal  produced  in  the  United  States.  In  the 
bituminous  regions  the  coal  mines  are  not  so  universally  owned  by  the 
railroads.  The  ports  for  export  are  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  New- 
port News.  The  railroads  connecting  these  points  with  the  bituminous 
region  are  sometimes  called  the  ''bituminous  coal  roads."  Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago  are  all  important  interior  ports  for 
the  bituminous  coals. 

The  extraordinary  demand  for  coal  in  the  various  industries  of 
Europe  caused  the  price  of  coal  to  rise  to  such  a  point  in  1899  and  1900 
that  it  was  possible  to  export  American  coal  at  a  lower  price  than  that 
demanded  by  English  miners.  As  a  result  of  this  high  price  Russia, 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  even  England  itself  bought 
American  bituminous  coal.  This  has  had  the  effect  of  introducing 
American  Coal  to  European  manufacturers,  and  acquainting  American 
coal-mining  companies  with  European  methods  of  doing  business.  This 
will  in  time  result  in  an  increase  of  the  exports  of  bituminous  coal  from 
this  country.  .The  exports  of  coal  from  the  United  States  have  been 
heretofore  mainly  to  Canada,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies ;  Canada 
alone  taking  eighty  per  cent,  of  which  about  one  fifth  has  been  anthracite 
and  about  four  fifths  bituminous.  In  1900  the  exports  amounted  to 
nearly  $20000000  in  value,  and  consisted  of  7  188000  tons  as  against 
3  640  655  tons  in  1896.  Europe  purchased  from  United  States  $573  946 
as  against  $53  169  in  1896.  The  United  States  imported  nearly  $5  000- 
000  worth,  mainly  from  British  Columbia  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Coal  is  found  in  layers  or  seams  in  what  are  called  the  coal  meas- 
ures ;  these  with  the  rocks  under  them,  which  are  generally  limestone 
or  old  red  sandstone,  are  called  coal  formations.  If  the  coal  seam  is 
level  and  aboye  the  water  line,  the  coal  is  taken  out  by  a  drift  about 
eight  feet  wide  cut  into  the  coal  itself.  When  other  rocks  have  to  be 
cut  through  to  reach  the  coal,  it  is  called  tunneling.  When  the  coal 
has  to  be  reached  by  cutting  a  perpendicular  opening,  this  is  called  a 
shaft  and  is  generally  twelve  feet  in  width.  Shafts  in  the  bituminous 
regions  of  the  United  States  are  generally  under  four  hundred  feet  in 


150  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

depth ;  in  the  anthracite  region  they  are  sometimes  two  thousand 
feet,  and  in  Europe  some  of  the  mines  are  even  deeper  than  this.  The 
coal  seams  underground  are  sometimes  cut  for  long  distances  and  have 
the  appearance  of  streets  in  an  underground  city.  The  coal  is  raised 
to  the  surface  and  then  sent  to  the  breakers  to  be  prepared  for  market. 
These  breakers  have  bars  at  different  distances  apart  so  as  to  separate 
the  various  sizes  of  coal  needed  for  its  several  purposes.  The  slate  or 
rocky  matter  found  with  the  coal  is  generally  picked  out  of  the  coal  by 
breaker  boys  or  by  machinery.  Lump  coal  passes  over  bars  seven  inches 
apart,  steamboat  five  inches,  furnace  three  and  one  half  inches,  ^%'g 
two  and  five  eighths,  stove  two  inches,  nut  one  and  one  eighth  inches, 
pea  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  and  buckwheat  one  half  inch. 

The  coal  mines  of  England,  Germany,  France,  and  Belgium  are 
gradually  becoming  more  expensive  to  work,  as  the  shafts  are  sunk 
deeper;  and  while  it  will  take  many  years  to  exhaust  them,  it  will  not 
be  many  decades  until  the  cost  of  mining  will  be  so  great  in  such  coun- 
tries as  to  make  it  cheaper  to  buy  their  coal,  as  they  do  their  cotton  and 
wheat,  from  the  United  States.  The  fact  that  the  United  States  has 
for  some  years  produced  more  iron  than  Great  Britain  and  now  more 
coal,  will  bring  about  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  world's  trade 
greater  than  any  that  has  yet  taken  place. 

Some  of  the  by-products  of  coal  are  valuable  factors  in  the  trade 
of  different  countries  and  in  the  development  of  our  own  country. 
Large  quantities  of  coal  are  manufactured  into  briquettes  by  mixinj 
the  coal  with  a  small  quantity  of  pasty  pitch  or  coal  tar  and  pressing 
it  by  machinery  into  whatever  size  or  shape  is  needed.  This  mak: 
it  more  convenient  for  transportation.  Large  quantities  of  coal  art 
exported  in  this  form  from  Cardiff  and  other  European  coal  centres. 

Coke  is  made  in  large  quantities  both  in  this  country  and  in  Euroj 
from,  bituminous  coal.  In  European  countries  where  anthracite  is  not 
found,  coke  is  used  to  obtain  a  fuel  high  in  carbon.  Another  product 
from  bituminous  coal  is  illuminating  gas.  A  ton  of  coal  produces 
ten  thousand  cubic  feet  of  gas,  and  gives  as  a  by-product  fifteen  hun- 
dred pounds  of  coke,  besides  ammonia  and  other  by-products.  Coke  is 
^:he  fixed  carbon  and  inorganic  ash  of  bituminous  coal  from  which  the 
volatile  elements  have  been  expelled  by  roasting  in  a  closed  chamber 


PETROLEUM.  151 

with  or  without  the  introduction  of  air.  Because  of  its  high  percentage 
of  carbon  and  the  absence  of  impurities,  coke,  Hke  anthracite  coal,  is 
useful  as  a  fuel  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.  The  United  Kingdom  pro- 
duced over  twenty  five  million,  and  the  United  States  over  nineteen 
million  tons  of  coke  in  1900.  The  United  Kingdom  exported  about 
one  million  tons  and  the  United  States  about  three  hundred  thousand 
tons  valued  at  $1  200  000,  principally  to  Canada  and  Mexico.  Germany 
exported  over  two  million  and  Belgium  over  one  million  tons  in  1900. 
Pennsylvania  produces  two  thirds  of  the  coke  made  in  the  United 
States,  the  best  coking  coals  being  found  in  Pennsylvania,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  Alabama,  Connellsville  coke  being  the  best  known. 

There  is  a  great  waste  of  valuable  by-products  by  the  ordinary 
methods.  By  use  of  the  by-product  ovens,  coal-tar  and  ammonia  are 
obtained  by  distillation  of  the  gas.  Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  used  as  a 
fertilizer  and  takes  the  place  of  other  fertilizing  materials  which  are 
imported  from  other  countries.  In  1900  nearly  five  hundred  thousand 
tons  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  produced,  valued  at  $26000000 
The  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  manufactured  over  two  thirds  of 
it.  Coal-tar  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  and  other  coal-tar 
dyes  for  which  there  is  a  large  demand. 

PETROLEUM. 

Petroleum  or  rock  oil  is  obtained  from  beds  of  porous  rock,  gen- 
erally sandstones  and  conglomerates,  although  it  is  sometimes  found 
in  shales  and  limestones.  Petroleum  is  generally  believed  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter  both  vegetable  and 
animal.  In  some  places  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  but  it  is 
generally  obtained  by  boring  deep  holes,  called  wells,  into  the  earth. 
In  order  to  bore  to  the  great  depths  sometimes  required,  derricks  are 
erected  to  hold  the  long  steel  drilling  tools  often  weighing  several  tons. 
Steam  engines  are  used  to  obtain  the  power  necessary  to  raise  and  drop 
the  heavy  drills  until  the  hole  is  bored  down  to  the  oil-bearing  rocks 
which  are  frequently  over  two  thousand  feet  from  the  surface.  When 
they  do  not  flow  freely,  a  nitro-glycerine  torpedo  is  put  down  into  the 
well  and  exploded  by  dropping  a  stone  or  other  heavy  object  upon  it. 
The  oil  then  rushes  forth  sometimes  at  the  rate  of  thousands  of  barrels 


152  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

a  day,  one  in  Texas  In  1900  giving  twenty  five  thousand  barrels  a  day. 
In  some  wells  the  oil  flows  freely,  being  forced  out  probably  by  the 
natural  gas  which  is  frequently  associated  with  it;  in  others  the  oil 
must  be  pumped  out.  Petroleum  as  it  comes  out  of  the  well,  is  some- 
times thick  and  such  oils  are  best  for  use  as  fuel ;  at  other  times  it*  is 
light,  when  it  is  best  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  oils. 
The  base  is  often  parafline,  but  sometimes  as  in  California  it  is  asphalt. 

Petroleum  was  used  in  ancient  times  in  Italy  and  Greece  to  burn 
in  lamps  and  as  a  medicine.  It  was  also  known  in  India  and  Persia 
from  the  very  earliest  period.  The  Indians  in  the  oil  region  laid  cloths 
on  the  ground  and  soaked  it  up  for  use  as  a  medicine.  It  was  supposed 
to  be  good  for  rheumatism  and  sore  throat.  It  was  not  until  after 
Drake  bored  the  first  well  near  Titusville,  Pennsylvania,  in  1859,  that 
it  became  of  importance  commercially.  The  discovery  of  a  method  of 
refining  it  and  the  invention  of  chimneys  by  which  the  refined  oil  could 
be  burned  in  lamps  without  smoking,  increased  the  demand  for  it.  The 
growth  of  the  world's  petroleum  industry  has  kept  pace  with  the  pro- 
gress of  mankind  to  a  greater  extent  than  that  of  any  other  natural 
product,  and  steadily  continues  to  add  to  the  wealth  and  comfort  of 
mankind  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  search  for  petroleum  is 
constantly  carried  on  in  every  country,  and  hardly  a  year  passes  without 
discoveries  of  new  oil-producing  regions. 

In  1899  ninety  five  per  cent  of  the  world's  output  of  petroleum  was 
obtained  in  Russia  and  the  United  States.  Other  important  producing 
countries  are  Galicia,  Sumatra,  Canada,  Roumania,  Java,  Japan,  and 
Peru.  Russia  produced  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  nineteen  million 
gallons  and  the  United  States  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixteen 
million  gallons ;  the  next  largest  producer,  Galicia,  only  eighty  four 
million  gallons.  The  Russian  oil  when  distilled  only  produced  twenty 
three  per  cent  of  refined  oil,  or  five  hundred  and  seventy  nine  million 
gallons  in  1899,  while  the  United  States  oil  produced  eighty  five  per 
cent,  or  two  thousand  and  fifty  nine  million  gallons.  This  is  due  to  the 
difference  in  the  composition  of  the  crude  petroleum  in  the  United 
States.  In  Russia  the  oil  regions  are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Trans 
Caucasus  from  the  Crimea  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  Baku  on  the  Caspian 
is  the  richest  region,  more  free-flowing  wells  being  found  there  than 


PETROLEUM. 


153 


anywhere  else  in  the  world.  The  oil  is  transported  to  Batoum  and  Poti 
on  the  Black  Sea  by  tank  cars  (a  pipe  line  is  under  construction  to 
carry  the  oil  part  of  the  distance),  and  to  the  Volga  by  tank  steamers. 
Oil  is  also  shipped  by  pipe  line  to  Novarassik  through  fifty  miles  of 
pipe  line  from  the  oil  wells  in  that  district. 

In  Russia,  on  account  of  the  composition  of  the  crude  oil,  the  main 
object  is  the  production  of  fuel  in  residuum,  called  atatki,  to  the  neglect 
of  illuminating  grades.  Locomotives,  steamboats,  and  most  of  the 
manufacturing  industries  obtain  their  fuel  from  this  source;  coal  is 
there  used  only  for  domestic  purposes  and  by  blacksmiths.  The  fuel 
oil  pays  for  the  crude  petroleum, 
and  the  value  of  the  refined  oil 
less  the  cost  of  distilling  is  the 
net  profit.  Crude  petroleum  is 
exported  for  refining  to  other 
countries,  although  a  number  of 
Tefineries  are  also  found  in  thi?- 
region.  The  Texas  oil  is  also  a 
fuel  oil  and  English  coal  inter- 
ests are  already  alarmed  for  fear 
that  the  substitution  of  this  oil 
for  coal  will  greatly  injure  their 
export  trade. 

The  oil  industry  of  the 
United  States  is  of  much  greater 
magnitude  than  that  of  any  other 
country.  In  1900  the  production  Each  square  =  %  of  \i. 

amounted  to  twenty  six  hundred  and  fifty  miUion  gallons  valued  at 
$75  000  000,  being  greater  in  quantity  and  value  than  in  any  other  pre- 
vious year,  and  more  than  double  that  of  Russia  in  value.  Of  this  fifty 
seven  per  cent  came  from  the  Appalachian  region  in  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, West  Virginia,  and  Ohio ;  thirty  three  per  cent  from  the  Lima 
field  in  Indiana  and  Ohio ;  and  five  per  cent  from  the  California  field. 

The  development  of  the  oil  industries  in  the  United  States  has 
introduced  many  economies  in  the  means  of  transportation.  Formerly 
oil-tank  cars  brought  most  of  the  products    to   the    refiners    on    the 


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FIG.   67.— WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  PETROLEUM 
IN  1900.   5  200  000  000  GALLONS. 


154 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


Atlantic  coast,  but  now  pipe  lines  from  the  oil  regions  in  the  east  carry 
the  oil  to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  and  other  points 
where  the  refineries  are  situated  and  where  the  oil  can  be  sent  abroad 
in  tank  steamers  or  in  tin  cans.  From  the  Lima  field,  pipe  lines  carry  it 
to  Chicago,  Cleveland,  and  Cincinnati. 

Not  only  is .  our  home  demand  supplied  but  in  1900  nearly  a 
billion  gallons,  or  over  40%  of  the  total  product  of  the  United  States, 
was  exported.  Of  this  amount  about  seventy  five  per  cent  is  illuminat- 
ing oil,  twelve  per  cent  crude  mineral  oils,  seven  per  cent  lubricating 
oils,  and  two  per  cent  naphtha  and  benzine.  The  amount  of  illuminat- 
ing oil  exported  from  the  United  States  is  about  equal  to  the  world's 
entire  production  outside  of  the  United  States.     It  can  thus  be  seen 

how  important  to  the  United 
States  is  the  trade  in  petroleum ; 
its  export  in  1900  amounted  to 
over  $75  000  000  in  value.  Amer- 
ican petroleum  is  carried  in  cans 
on  the  backs  of  camels  in  the 
deserts  of  Africa,  on  the  backs 
of  mules  in  South  America,  and 
in  wheelbarrows  through  the 
streets  of  Pekin.  Petroleum  can 
be  seen  lighting  the  tents  of  the 
Hindoo  on  the  highest  habitable 
part  of  the  Himalayas,  and  dis- 
placing olive  oil  as  an  illuminant 
even  in  the  olive  oil  factories  of 
Italy. 

Sixty  six  per  cent  of  the 
exports  of  petroleum  from  the 
United  States  is  sent  to  Europe,  the  United  Kingdom  taking  twenty  per 
cent,  Germany  fifteen  per  cent.  Asia,  China,  Japan,  and  India  together, 
take  eighteen  per  cent.  South  America  takes  eight  per  cent  and  Aus- 
tralia four  per  cent.  Russia's  export  trade  amounts  in  value  to  less 
than  one  third  that  of  the  United  States.  In  Asia  and,  to  some 
extent,  in  Europe,  Russia  competes  with  the  United  States,  but  the 


6065  70175  80  8590  91  92j  93, 94  95^96,97  98  99  MiOl  ^0205 

"T r "■"  ■■    "ZZt-        .Z-^-n 

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AT                                    I    ■     .   -A.  ..-4--        .    •     ..-T       40 

,.                                    I           jt     ^  _  .J ..   .  — -     - -    ?  c 

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; y-- 7  n    t  -  r~- J 

^^- ^ r        r-        '   ^ 

FIG.  68.— PETROLEUM  — UNITED  STATES  AND 
RUSSIA  PRODUCTION.  AND  UNITED  STATES 
EXPORTS  IN  MILLIONS  OF  BARRELS. 

1 United  States  Product. 

2 United  States  Exports. 

3 Russian  Product. 


PETROLEUM.  155 

better  character  of  the  American  oil  still  gives  it  the  advantage  where 
quality  is  considered.  The  discovery  of  new  oil-producing  regions 
would  naturally  interfere  with  the  trade  of  the  United  States  by  their 
ability  to  supply  the  local  demand,  if  it  were  not  that  the  world's 
demand  for  petroleum  increases  more  than  its  supply. 

By  distillation  various  products  are  obtained  from  petroleum  and 
pass  off  as  vapor  in  the  following  order, — gasoline,  used  for  making 
gas  and  mixing  with  coal  gas;  naphtha,  which  is  highly  inflammable, 
used  in  making  oilcloth  and  cleaning  clothes  and  kid  gloves ;  benzine, 
or  benzole,  used  as  a  solvent  in  the  india  rubber  business  and  also 
in  making  paints  and  varnishes.  Kerosene  is  the  ordinary  illuminating 
oil.  This  is  required  in  many  places  to  stand  a  certain  test  of  heat  with- 
out igniting.  The  standard  in  most  of  the  United  States  is  140°  F. 
Headlight  oil  stands  a  higher  test  than  kerosene  and  is  so  called  because 
it  is  used  in  the  headlights  of  locomotives.  After  all  these  are  dis- 
tilled a  residuum  remains  from  which  paraffine  or  paraffine  wax  is 
obtained.  This  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candles,  water  proof 
cloths,  and  for  other  purposes.  From  this  is  also  obtained  by  refining 
many  oils  used  for  lubricating  purposes.  Vaseline  is  obtained  by  skim- 
ming a  substance  from  the  surface  of  the  oil  while  it  is  being  refined, 
and  then  purifying  it.  Some  of  these  products  enter  largely  into  com- 
merce. In  1900  the  United  States  exported  $8000000  worth  of  par- 
affine and  paraffine  wax  almost  entirely  to  Europe.  (Paraffine  is  also 
obtained  by  distillation  from  coal  shales  in  European  countries.) 

Natural  gas  is  frequently  found  associated  with  petroleum,  and 
although  very  little  of  it  enters  into  foreign  commerce,  it  is  of  great 
value  in  developing  manufacturing  industries  in  localities  near  enough 
to  be  supplied  by  it  with  fuel.  Western  Pennsylvania  and  New  York, 
northwestern  Ohio  and  eastern  Indiana  contain  the  richest  gas  fielcfean 
the  United  States.  Some  is  also  obtained  in  Kentucky,  West  Virginia, 
Kansas,  and  California.  It  is  used  for  heating,  cooking,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glass,  and  in  certain  processes  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry, 
but  it  is  not  a  good  illuminant.  It  is  brought  from  the  wells  to  the 
manufacturing  towns  through  pipes. 

Asphalt: — Asphaltic  rocks  consisting  of  bituminous  limestone  or 
sandstone  and  other  forms,  are  found  in  California,  Utah,  and  other 


166  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

states  of  the  United  States,  and  in  many  European  countries.  The 
richest  deposits,  however,  have  heretofore  been  found  on  the  island  of 
Trinidad.  About  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  tons  were  exported 
from  this  island  in  1900  of  which  seventy  per  cent  was  sent  to  the 
United  States ;  the  remainder  went  to  Europe.  Seven  eighths  of  this 
was  taken  from  the  pitch  lake.  A  similar  pitch  lake  at  Bermudez, 
Venezuela,  ten  times  the  size  of  the  Trinidad  lake  and  purer  in  the 
proportion  of  97  to  56,  is  now  being  worked.  The  principal  use  of  this 
substance  is  in  the  manufacture  of  asphalt  for  mixing  with  other  sub- 
stances in  laying  street  pavement.  Asphaltum  can  be  made  artificially, 
and  is  the  basis  of  petroleum  in  California. 

Ozocerite,  or  mineral  wax,  is  found  in  Galicia,  and  in  Utah ;  it  is  a 
solid  paraffine  with  some  benzine  and  naphtha.  It  is  an  altered  form 
of  petroleum  deprived  of  a  large  part  of  its  volatile  ingredients.  It  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  beeswax  and  as  an  insulator  in  electricity. 

Non-Metallic  Structural  Minerals. 
The  non-metallic  structural  minerals  are  stone,  cement,  and  clay. 
Stone  includes  granite,  limestone,  sandstone,  and  slate,  and  the  value 
of  their  annual  product  in  the  United  States  is  about  $50  000  000. 

STONE. 

Granite  is  a  rock  composed  of  quartz,  mica,  and  feldspar.  Com- 
mercially it  includes  all  the  igneous  rocks  suitable  for  use  in  the  same 
way  as  granite  proper.  In  1899  the  annual  production  of  granite  in  the 
United  States  was  valued  at  $11  000000,  of  which  sixty  per  cent  was 
used  for  structural  purposes  of  all  kinds,  twenty-five  per  cent  for  the 
maintenance  of  highways,  and  fifteen  per  cent  for  monuments  and 
cemetery  purposes.  Massachusetts  leads  in  the  value  of  this  product, 
which  amounts  to  about  one  half  that  of  the  entire  country. 

Limestone  is  a  carbonate  of  lime  of  which  about  $15  000  000  worth 
was  used  for  building  purposes  in  the  United  States  in  1899.  When 
it  is  susceptible  of  polish  and  has  a  texture  and  color  suitable  for  orna- 
mental work  it  is  known  as  marble.  The  largest  part  of  the  $4  000  000 
worth  of  marble  produced  annually  in  the  United  States  comes  from 
Vermont.    The  iron  furnaces  use  about  $3  000  000  worth  of  limestone 


STONE.  157 

for  flux.  Limestone  is  also  used  in  the  making  of  cement,  of  lime  for 
plaster,  for  fertilizers,  and  in  making  roads. 

Sandstone  is  mainly  employed  for  structural  purposes,  brownstone 
and  bluestone  being  among  the  best  known  varieties.  The  output  in 
1900  was  about  $6  000  000  in  value. 

Stone  has  been  more  largely  in  demand  during  recent  years 
because  of  the  interest  taken  in  the  construction  of  macadam  and  tel- 
ford  roads  throughout  the  United  States.  These  products  rarely  enter 
into  foreign  trade,  being  mainly  used  within  a  few  hundred  miles  of  the 
quarries  from  which  they  are  obtained.  Aberdeen  granite  is  exported 
from  Scotland.  Marble  to  the  amount  of  $80  000  in  value  is  exported 
annually  from  the  United  States,  of  which  over  three  fourths  is  Ver- 
mont marble  sold  to  Canada.  Italy  exports  about  $3  000  000  worth  of 
marble  annually.  The  finest,  which  is  used  mainly  by  sculptors,  is  the 
Carrara  marble  from  quarries  which  have  been  worked  since  the  days 
of  the  Caesars.  The  United  States  imports  about  $800  000  worth  of 
marble,  nearly  eighty  five  per  cent  of  which  comes  from  Italy, 

Slate  is  formed  by  the  alteration  of  clay  strata  giving  to  it  a  new 
structure,  developed  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  pressure,  called 
slaty  cleavage.  The  most  extensive  slate  quarries  in  the  world  are 
found  in  north  Wales.  The  output  of  English  slate  quarries  is  about 
$8  000  000  annually.  That  of  the  United  States  about  $3  000  000.  The 
United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States  each  export  about  $1  000  000 
worth  annually,  the  larger  part  of  the  British  going  to  Germany, 
and  of  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain.  Australia  is  the  second 
largest  purchaser  from  both  countries.  Pennsylvania  produces  about 
sixty  per  cent,  and  Vermont  and  New  York  about  twenty  three  per 
cent  of  the  slate  produced  in  the  United  States. 

CLAY. 

Clay  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  abundant  of  mineral  substances. 
Its  base  is  the  mineral  kaolin  composed  of  alumina,  silica,  and  water, 
combined  chemically  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  alumina  to  two  of  each 
of  the  others.  Its  important  properties  are  its  plasticity,  the  durability 
of  its  forms  when  burnt,  and  its  ability  to  withstand  high  temperatures. 


158  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

The  coarser  kinds  of  clay  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks, 
tiles,  and  sewer  pipe,  and  the  finer  in  the  manufacture  of  white  ware, 
china,  and  porcelain  of  which  we  shall  treat  later.  The  value  of  the 
brick  clay  made  in  the  United  States  in  1900  was  $12000000.  The 
value  of  the  bricks  made  in  the  United  States  in  1899  was  as  follows : 

Common  builder's  brick  $37  000  000 

Hard  building  brick   3  000  000 

Fire  brick 5  000  000 

Paving  brick    5  000  000 

The  greatest  number  of  building  bricks  are  made  in  the  more 
densely  populated  states.  Pennsylvania  leads  in  fire  brick,  Ohio  in 
paving  brick.  These  products  do  not  enter  largely  into  commerce  but 
are  manufactured  for  local  uses  in  most  countries.  The  United  States 
exported  over  $500000  worth  of  bricks  in  1900,  of  which  four  fifths 
were  fire  brick. 

CEMENT. 

By  mixing  burned  limestone,  or  lime,  with  sand  and  water  a  plaster 
is  produced  which  upon  drying  hardens  to  form  a  cement,  the  ordinary 
material  used  for  plaster.  Cements  which  have  the  power  of  setting 
and  hardening  under  water  are  called  hydraulic  or  Portland  cements. 
They  are  either  a  natural  or  artificial  mixture  of  carbonate  of  lime  and 
clay  heated  to  a  high  temperature  and  then  ground  to  powder.  In 
1900  the  output  of  Portland  cement  in  the  United  States  was  valued  at 
about  $12000000,  and  of  natural  hydrauHc  cement  $4000000.  Penn- 
sylvania produced  about  one  half  the  former  and  New  York  about  one 
half  the  latter.  The  United  States  imported  about  $3  250  000  worth  of 
cement  of  which  one  half  was  from  Germany  and  one  fourth  from 
Belgium.  Germany  exported  over  $5  000  000  worth,  United  Kingdom 
$3  500  000  worth,  and  Belgium  $3  200  000. 

Abrasives. 

Abrasive  materials  are  sometimes  used  In  the  form  of  powders 
and  sometimes  in  the  form  of  stones.  Sand  is  used  in  scouring  marble 
and  other  stones.    Diamond  dust  is  used  for  sawing  and  polishing  very 


ABRASIVES,  159 

hard  rocks  and  metals.  About  $600000  worth  was  imported  in  1900 
principally  from  France  and  England.  Corundum  and  emery  are 
oxides  of  aluminum  and  are  used  in  the  powdered  form  for  polishing 
granite  and  other  rocks.  Emery  powder  is  sometimes  stuck  on  paper 
or  cloth  and  used  for  polishing  purposes.  Emery  or  corundum  wheels 
are  artificially  made  from  the  powder  and  are  used  for  grinding  pur- 
poses. About  $148  000  worth  were  exported  mainly  to  Germany  and 
the  United  Kingdom.  Corundum  is  supplied  to  the  United  States  from 
the  mines  of  Georgia  and  North  Carolina,  the  output  in  1899  being 
about  $150000  in  value.  About  $160000  worth  of  crude  emery  is  im- 
ported, almost  entirely  from  Turkey  in  Asia,  which  is  the  principal 
source  of  the  world's  supply. 

Infusorial  earth  is  a  silicious  formation  found  in  the  accumulated 
beds  of  the  remains  of  certain  shells  and  plants.  It  is  used  for  polishing 
metals  and  glass  and  in  the  manufacture  of  dynamite  and  in  glazing 
works.  The  principal  source  of  supply  in  the  United  States  is  found 
in  Maryland;  it  is  also  found  in  California,  New  Hampshire,  New 
Jersey,  and  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  A  very  small  amount  is 
imported. 

Grindstones  are  obtained  from  the  Berean  grit  sandstones  of  Ohio 
and  Michigan,  and  come  into  the  market  in  circular  form.  The  value 
of  the  United  States  output  in  1900  was  $675  000.  They  are  used  for 
grinding  and  for  giving  edge  to  tools. 

Buhrstones  are  square  blocks  of  white  stone  a  number  of  which 
are  put  together  to  form  millstones.  The  demand  for  them  is  decreas- 
ing owing  to  the  adoption  of  the  roller  process  in  grinding  grain.  The 
finest  variety  is  obtained  from  the  Paris  basin  in  France ;  about  $20  000 
worth  was  imported  in  1900. 

Oilstones  and  whetstones  are  chiefly  of  domestic  production. 
Whetstones  called  scythestones  are  supplied  to  the  United  States  by 
New  England  and  some  are  exported  to  Europe.  Of  oilstones  the  out- 
put in  1900  was  valued  at  about  $200  000.  These  are  of  finer  texture 
than  the  whetstones  and  are  used  for  sharpening  fine  tools.  The  finest 
variety  is  the  Arkansas  oilstone  some  of  which  is  exported  to  Europe. 
The  Turkish  oilstone  is  the  main  supply  for  the  finest  varieties  in 
Europe;  about  $200000  worth  is  imported  from  Europe. 


160  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

Of  carborundum  an  artificial  product  the  United  States  production 
in   1900  was  $240  cxx),  and  of  garnets  for  abrasive   purposes  aboni 
$80000,  the  latter  from  the  Adirondacks,  New  York,  and  from  Chester 
county,  Pennsylvania. 
/y  PLUMBAGO.  i 

Plumbago,  or  graphite,  from  which  the  ''black  lead"  of  leadj 
pencils  is  made,  is  also  used  as  a  lubricant  because  of  its  "soapy"  char- 
acter; and  mixed  with  clay,  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  crucibles 
because  it  can  withstand  great  heat  without  injury.  The  principal 
source  of  supply  is  Ceylon  which  exports  about  eighty  thousand  tons 
annually,  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world  produces.  Austria  is  the 
next  largest  producing  country  followed  by  Germany.  The  United 
States  produced  about  seven  hundred  tons  of  crystallized,  and  about 
three  hundred  tons  of  the  amorphous  graphite.  The  former  is  obtained 
from  the  mines  near  Ticonderoga,  New  York,  and  some  mines  in  east- 
ern Pennsylvania.  The  amorphous  is  obtained  in  Rhode  Island  and  is 
used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  stove  blacking.  The  United  States 
imported  twenty-one  thousand  tons  of  graphite  in  1900,  the  most  of 
which  was  from  Ceylon. 

SALT. 

The  salt  of  commerce  is  slightly  impure  sodium  chloride.  It  is 
obtained  by  evaporation  from  sea  water  and  other  natural  brines,  and 
by  mining  from  natural  beds.  This  latter  is  called  rock  salt.  Rock  salt 
is  the  source  of  supply  in  Russia,  United  Kingdom,  Austria,  and  in 
Kansas  and  Louisiana  in  the  United  States.  Brine  is  the  source  of  sup- 
ply in  France,  Portugal,  Italy,  Central  and  South  America,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, Michigan,  and  New  York.  The  United  States,  Russia,  United 
Kingdom,  Germany,  India,  and  France  are  the  largest  producing  coun- 
tries, while  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Kansas  are  the  largest  producing 
states.  The  United  Kingdom  exports  over  $2  000  000  worth,  of  which 
nearly  one  half  is  sent  to  British  India.  The  United  States  imports 
about  $600  000  worth.  While  India  produces  a  large  amount  of  salt  it 
also  imports  a  large  amount ;  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  its  peo- 
ple are  vegetarians  and  need  large  quantities  of  salt.  The  annual  reve- 
nue from  salt  in  India  is  $29  000  000.    Salt  appears  to  be  essential  to  the 


SULPHUR— PRECIOUS  STONES.  161 

life  of  man  and  of  the  higher  animals  and  is  the  only  solid  mineral  sub- 
stance used  as  human  food.  Salt  is  used  for  a  food  preservative  and  for 
the  manufacture  of  sodium  carbonate  which  enters  into  the  manufacture 
of  soap  and  glass ;  it  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine  used 
in  bleaching,  and  of  hydrochloric  and  muriatic  acids  used  in  the  arts. 

SULPHUR. 

Sulphur  is  of  value  because  of  its  being  found  in  combination 
with  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  antimony,  in  the  form  of  sulphides.  It  is 
obtained  from  pyrites  (sulphide  of  iron),  from  the  waste  of  calcium 
sulphide  in  alkali  works,  and  from  native  sulphur.  The  principal  sup- 
ply of  native  sulphur  comes  from  the  Lipari  Islands,  Sicily,  where  it  is 
of  volcanic  origin.  It  is  also  obtained  in  native  form  in  Utah  and 
Nevada;  the  19CX)  output  of  the  United  States  amounted  to  about 
$100  000  in  value.  Nearly  $3  000  000  worth  of  native  sulphur  was  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  in  1900,  almost  entirely  from  Italy.  While 
there  is  abundance  of  pyrites  in  the  United  States,  over  $1  000  000 
worth  was  imported.  In  1900,  $700000  worth  was  produced  in  Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts,  and  New  York  to  supply  the  increased  demand 
for  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphur  is  also  used  for  the  manufacture  of  matches 
and  gunpowder. 

PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Diamonds  come  principally  from  South  Africa,  Brazil,  and  India. 
Dver  $20  000  000  worth  annually  are  exported  from  Cape  Colony.  The 
most  famous  diamond  mines  are  at  Kimberly  in  South  Africa.  Dia- 
monds are  rarely  found  in  the  United  States.  The  principal  diamond 
markets  are  London,  Amsterdam,  and  Antwerp  where  the  rough  dia- 
monds are  cut.  The  United  States  imported  over  $11000000  worth 
in  1900,  of  which  about  one  third  were  for  the  use  of  miners,  glaziers, 
and  engravers,  also  for  jewels  in  watches,  about  two  thirds  were  for 
use  as  personal  adornment.  They  came  principally  from  England  and 
the  Netherlands. 

Other  precious  stones  to  the  amount  of  $3  000  000  were  imported 
mainly  from  England.  Emeralds  are  obtained  from  Colombia  and 
New  South  Wales;  rubies  and  sapphires  from  India  and  Siam;  opals 
from  Australia;  turquoise  from  California  and  Australia. 


163  MANUFACTURES.  I 

ASBESTOS.  i 

Asbestos,  a  silicate  of  magnesium,  is  a  fibrous  mineral.     It  is 
incombustible    and    is    therefore    used    when    fireproof    qualities    are 
required  in  the  manufacture  of  fireproof  paper,  cloth,  fireproof  paints,  \ 
and  coverings  for  pipes  and  boilers.     Only  eleven  hundred  tons,  worth  j 
$15000,  were  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1900;    over  $200000 
worth  were  imported  from  Canada,  which  produced  about  23  000  tons.  I 

LITHOGRAPHIC    STONE.  I 

Lithographic  stone  is  a  grey  or  creamish  limestone  having  a  fine 
grain,  found  at  Solenhofen  in  Bavaria.  It  can  be  drawn  on  either  with 
crayon  or  pen  and  ink.  Nitric  acid  is  then  applied  and  this  eats  into  the 
stone  where  there  is  no  ink,  leaving  the  lines  of  the  drawing  projected 
a  little ;  after  it  has  become  dry,  it  is  ready  to  be  printed  from.  About ' 
$78000  worth  was  imported  in  1900  mainly  from  Germany. 

MICA. 

Mica  is  one  of  the  most  common  minerals.  It  is  most  valuable 
commercially  when  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  form  of  sheets. 
These  are  either  transparent  or  semi-transparent,  and  are  used  in  stove 
doors,  to  make  chimneys  for  incandescent  gas  lamps,  and  in  parts  of 
electrical  apparatus.  Ground  mica  is  used  as  a  lubricant  for  car  wheels 
and  to  produce  a  spangled  effect  on  wall  paper.  The  scrap  product  is 
also  used  as  an  insulating  medium  for  electrical  apparatus  and  in  boiler 
and  pipe  coverings.  When  ground  it  is  used  as  an  absorbent  of  nitro- 
glycerin. 

MANUFACTURES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  most  important  manufacturing  districts  are  found  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  The  value  of  the  output  of  the  manufacturing 
industries  of  the  United  States  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  two 
nations ;  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany  and  France  follow  in  order  ofj 
manufactured  products.  The  United  States  also  consumes  more  manu 
factured  goods  than  any  other  nation  and  is  therefore  the  best  market] 
in  the  world  for  them.  For  a  long  time  the  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States  devoted  their  energies  to  supplying  the  needs  of  their  home  mar- 
kets while  other  nations  were  securing  a  foothold  in  foreign  markets,! 


EXPORTS  OF  MANUFACTURED  GOODS. 


168 


As  time  rolled  on  the  industry  and  inventive  genius  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  together  with  the  cheaper  coal  and  iron  enabled  this 
country  to  produce  in  many  lines  of  manufactured  goods  more  than  it 
could  consume.  Owing  to  the  enforced  economies  introduced  from 
1894-97  as  a  result  of  the  crisis  of  1893  the  American  manufacturer 
learned  how  to  produce  his  goods  cheap  enough  to  sell  them  in  foreign 
markets  and  this  caused  a  rapid  increase  in  the  exports  of  manufactured 
products.  The  United  States  while  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  devel- 
opment of  this  trade  is  increasing  it  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  any  of  its 
rivals.     In  1900  the  value  of  exports  of  domestic  merchandise  from  the 


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FIG.  69.— EXPORTS   OF  MANUFACTURES  IN    MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 


United  States  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  nation.  The  value  of 
the  exports  of  mamifactiired  goods,  however,  was  less  than  one  half  of 
the  United  Kingdom  and  two  thirds  that  of  Germany. 

As  will  be  seen  from  figure  69  the  increase  in  the  value  of  manufac' 
tured  goods  exported  in  1900  over  that  of  1890  was  nearly  twice  as 
much  for  the  United  States  as  for  the  other  three  great  manufacturing 
nations  combined.  Until  the  last  few  years  this  country  imported  more 
manufactured  goods  than  it  exported. 

The  great  variety  of  manufactured  goods  entering  into  foreign 
commerce  makes  it  impossible  to  consider  or  even  enumerate  them  all. 
In  addition  to  those  already  considered  in  connection  with  the  raw 


164 


MAN  UFA  CTURES, 


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FIG.  70. -UNITED  STATES  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 
OF  MANUFACTURES  IN  MILLIONS   OF  DOLLARS. 
Exports. Imports. 


materials  from  which  they  are  made,  there  are  a  number  of  other  manu- 
factured goods,  which,  because  of  their  importance,  will  be  treated 

separately  under  the  head  of 
manufactures  and  classified  as 
follows : 

I.  Textiles,  2.  Iron  and 
Steel,  3.  Leather,  4.  Chemi- 
cals and  Fertilizers,  5.  Paper, 
6.  Pottery,     7.  Glassware. 

Textiles. 

Textiles  including  cotton, 
woolen,  silk  and  other  goods 
made  from  fibres,  enter  more 
largely  into  commerce  than  any 
other  class  of  manufactured 
goods.  The  value  of  the  ex- 
ports of  textiles  from  the 
United  Kingdom  is  about  $500  000  000  annually,  or  nearly  one  half  of 
all  its  exports  of  manufactures,  and  the  value  imported  into  the  United 
States  amounts  to  about  $120000000,  or  about  one  third  of  all  the  im- 
ports of  manufactured  goods.    Of  these  the  most  important  is  cotton. 

The  development  of  the  cotton  and  wool  manufacturing  indus- 
tries of  the  United  States  was  attended  with  great  difficulties.  During 
colonial  times  the  importation  of  machinery  was  prohibited,  so  that  the 
colonists  were  compelled  to  wear  homespun  clothing  or  else  to  import 
finer  grades  from  England.  The  English  went  so  far  as  to  seize  brass 
models  of  Arkwright's  machine,  which  were  about  to  be  shipped  to 
Tench  Coxe  at  Philadelphia,  the  father  of  American  cotton  culture. 
Samuel  Slater  who  built  the  first  Arkwright  mill  in  this  country  in 
1789  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island,  did  so  without  models  or  patterns, 
depending  entirely  on  his  recollection  of  those  he  had  seen  in  England. 
Lowell  who  built  the  large  carpet  manufasturing  mills  named  after 
him,  did  so  without  being  able  to  secure  patterns  of  the  English  looms, 
and  he  succeeded  in  making  improvements  on  what  he  had  seen  in 
England  which  were  afterwards  copied  in  the  English  mills.    The  first 


COTTON.  165 

great  advance  in  these  industries  was  made  during  the  period 
the  Embargo  Act  was  in  effect  and  during  the  war  of  1812,  when  it  was 
difficult  to  obtain  foreign  goods,  and  domestic 'manufacturing  industry 
rapidly  developed.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the  English  merchants 
flooded  the  market  with  their  goods  sending  over  $100000000  worth 
in  one  year,  and  the  financial  ruin  of  nearly  every  textile  mill  owner  in 
the  United  States  followed.  Since  that  time  tariffs  have  generally  pro- 
tected these  industries,  and  to-day  they  are  able  to  supply  most  of  the 
home  demand  for  cotton  and  woolen  goods  and  to  compete  in  some 
grades  of  cotton  goods,  with  England,  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  are  important  branches  of  the  textile 
industry.  Textile  fabrics  are  bleached  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
natural  color,  rendering  them  white,  or  nearly  so,  and  free  from  im- 
purities. This  was  formerly  accomplished  by  exposing  them  to  the 
sun,  but  now  powerful  chemicals  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Chlorine 
in  the  form  of  bleaching  powder  is  used  to  bleach  the  vegetable  fibres, 
cotton,  flax,  and  hemp ;  and  sulphuric  acid  to  bleach  the  animal  fibres, 
silk  and  wool.  When  the  cotton  is  intended  for  thread  it  is  bleached  in 
the  yarn,  when  for  cloth  used  to  make  piece  goods  it  is  bleached  in 
the  cloth. 

The  various  colors  which  textile  fabrics  have  are  obtained  by  the 
use  of  various  dyes.  The  artificial  dyes  such  as  coal  tar  colors  are  most 
generally  used,  although  indigo  and  logwood  are  also  used.  Wool 
and  silk  can  be  dyed  by  simply  dipping  them  in  a  boiling  solution  of 
the  dye ;  cotton  and  linen  are  harder  to  dye.  In  some  cases  the  colors 
cannot  be  made  fast  except  with  the  aid  of  mordants.  The  dyeing 
may  be  done  either  in  the  yarn  or  in  the  piece  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  finished  cloth.  Printed  goods  are  made  by  the  use  of  blocks 
or  copper  cylinders  on  which  the  pattern  is  engraved,  the  white  cloth 
passing  under  them  and  taking  the  impression;  a  different  cylinder 
being  used  for  each  color. 

COTTON    MANUFACTURES. 

At  a  very  early  period  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton  into 
materials  for  clothing  was  almost  universal  in  India  and  China.  In 
Europe,— Venice,  Spain  and  the  Netherlands,— had  all  developed  cot- 


166  MANUFACTURES. 

ton  industries  before  England,  although  the  latter  held  a  monopoly  of 
the  industry  during  most  of  the  nineteenth  century.  On  the  last  day  of 
the  last  year  of  the  sixteenth  century  Elizabeth  chartered  the  East  India 
Company.  As  a  result  of  this  the  bright  colored  chintzes  and  other 
cotton  goods  from  India  soon  took  the  place  of  the  more  homely  woolen 
and  linen  goods  among  the  wealthier  classes.  In  time  the  spinning  and 
weaving  industries  of  England  were  almost  destroyed,  so  that  a  law 
was  passed  forbidding  the  importation  of  cotton  goods  from  India.  As 
this  failed  to  stop  it,  the  English  textile  workers  after  some  years  had 
elapsed,  began  to  imitate  the  cotton  goods  of  India. 

The  implements  in  use  at  that  time  and,  for  many  years  afterward, 
were  the  ancient  distaff  and  spindle  and  the  more  recent  spinning  wheel. 
With  these  only  one  thread  at  a  time  was  produced.  Kaye  invented 
the  fly  shuttle  by  which  the  hand  loom,  also  an  ancient  textile  imple- 
ment, was  able  to  weave  the  yarn  faster  than  it  could  be  supplied.  Har- 
greaves  invented  the  spinning  jenny  for  cotton  spinning,  by  which  a 
number  of  threads  could  be  spun  at  a  time.  Some  idea  of  the  process 
of  spinning  will  make  the  object  of  the  different  inventions  clearer. 

The  cotton  or  wool  in  the  mill  is  relieved  of  its  packed  or  knotted 
condition  in  the  cylinders  called  openers.  These  pull  the  hair  or  fibres 
apart  and  separate  them  as  far  as  possible.  They  are  then  passed 
through  rollers  having  sharp  teeth  which  pick  out  the  dirt  and  leaves, 
leaving  pure,  soft,  white  laps  of  cotton  or  wool.  These  laps  are  passed 
on  to  the  carding  machine  where  they  are  run  through  rollers  which 
are  covered  with  fine  steel  wire  points  stuck  on  leather  or  other  material 
called  cards.  As  the  lap  passes  through  them,  they  pull  the  tangled 
hairs  apart  and  make  them  all  lie  in  one  direction,  and  when  they  come 
out  they  are  in  the  form  of  a  loose  untwisted  rope  of  cotton  or  wool 
about  an  inch  thick,  called  a  sliver.  The  water  frame,  so  called  because 
water  power  was  used,  was  invented  by  Arkwright  in  1769.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  throstle.  This  machine  takes  the  slivers  and  draws 
them  through  a  series  of  pairs  of  rollers,  each  pair  in  advance  of  the 
others  and  moving  at  different  rates  of  speed.  The  sliver  is  twisted 
finer  and  finer  until  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  thick  twine.  Two  of  these 
are  then  joined  together  and  again  passed  through  the  machinery  and 
twisted  until  the  roving,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  thread  of  the  required  fine- 


COTTON.         f/^   ^\^^^     /  167 


less.  From  the  last  roller  the  roving  Is  reived  o^^^«pools,  called 
pindles,  by  the  mule  spinner,  or  mule  jenny,  invented  by  Crompton 
n  1779,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  spinning-wheel.  It  had  a  frame 
ong  enough  to  carry  hundreds  of  spindles,  which  it  wound  at  one  time. 
This  gave  plenty  of  yarn  and  the  trouble  then  was  that  the  weavers 
ould  not  weave  the  yarn  fast  enough  on  their  hand  looms. 

Cartwright  in  1785  invented  the  power  loom.  In  this  the  threads, 
vlien  they  come  from  the  jenny,  were  wound  upon  beams  or  rollers  of 
lie  width  of  the  cloth  to  be  made,  and  these  were  the  long  threads 
vliich  form  the  warp.  The  filling,  or  short  threads,  were  wound  upon 
j()1)bins.  These,  held  in  shuttles,  were  thrown  from  one  side  of  the 
ooni  to  the  other,  by  which  means  the  thread  was  carried  back  and  forth 
hrough  the  long  threads  at  a  rapid  rate — about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
times  a  minute.  The  spinners  and  weavers  were  thus  able  to  use  up 
ill  the  cotton  and  there  was  danger  of  the  supply  running  short. 

In  1793,  Whitney's  cotton  gin  created  a  revolution  in  the  cotton- 
raising  industry  in  America,  and  enabled  the  cotton  fields  of  the  United 
States  to  supply  the  demand  and  to  take  away  from  India  the 
supremacy  in  the  cotton  i^arkets  of  the  world.  In  1830,  Roberts 
invented  the  self-acting  mule,  which  was  a  great  advance  on  Cromp- 
ton's.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  labor,  occasioned  by  the  civil  war  in 
1861-65,  American  spinners  were  forced  to  look  for  some  means  of 
operating  with  less  skilled  labor.  The  ring  spindle  was  then  invented 
and  increased  the  number  of  revolutions  from  five  thousand  to  ten 
thousand. 

As  a  result  of  these  inventions  and  many  other  minor  ones,  one 
an  to-day  can  produce  as  much  cotton  yarn  or  cloth  as  a  thousand 
men  could  produce  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Yarn  is  the  name  given  to  the  thread  prepared  for  weaving  as 
distinguished  from  sewing  thread.  It  varies  in  the  material  from  which 
it  is  made  and  also  in  the  fineness  to  which  it  is  spun.  In  order  that  uni- 
formity may  be  obtained  a  pound  of  the  material  is  taken  as  the 
standard  and  this  is  divided  into  hanks  or  cuts.  One  of  these  hanks 
of  linen  yarn  contains  three  hundred  yards,  of  cotton  yarn  eight  hun- 
dred and  forty  yards,  and  of  woolen  yarn  sixteen  hundred  yards.  The 
number  of  hanks  in  a  pound  gives  the  number  of  the  yarn  as  25's,  40's, 


L 


168 


MANUFA  CTURES. 


etc.      The  finer  the  yarn  the  higher  the  number.      Cotton  of  whi( 
musHn  is  made  can  be  spun  as  fine  as  700's.     Cotton  yam  has  beel 
spun  up  to  number  10  000,  or  ten  thousand  hanks  each  eight  hundre 
and  forty  yards  long  from  one  pound  of  cotton,  or  over  four  thousar 
miles  in  length. 

The  mills  of  the  United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom  each  con 
sume  about  one  fourth  of  the  world's  cotton  crop ;   continental  Europ 
one  third,  and  India  one  tenth.    Of  the  one  hundred  million  spindles  in 
the  cotton  mills  of  the  world,  about  forty  four  per  cent  are  in  United 


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FIG.  71. -WORLD'S  COTTON  CONSUMPTION 
14  400  000  BALES. 

Each  square  =  K  of  isi. 


FIG.  72.— WORLD'S  COTTON  SPINDLES 
102  800  000. 

Each  square  =  ^  of  \<i. 


Kingdom,  eighteen  per  cenr  in  the  United  States,  eight  per  cent  in  Ger- 
many, seven  per  cent  in  Russia,  five  per  cent  in  France,  and  five  per  cent 
in  India ;  the  remaining  thirteen  per  cent  are  in  Austria,  Spain,  Italy, 
Switzerland,  Japan,  China,  and  a  few  other  countries.  Most  of  the  cot- 
ton mills  are  located  in  countries  where  cotton  cannot  be  grown.  The . 
United  Kingdom  until  the  last  twenty  years  had  almost  a  monopoly 
of  cotton  manufacturing,  owing  to  the  cheap  coal  and  iron  and  the 
convenient  access  to  the  sea.  Now  many  of  her  former  customers  are 
her  principal  rivals.     India  competes  in  yarns  in  the  oriental  markets 


COTTON.  169 

the  United  States  in  piece  goods  in  the  Chinese  markets;  Germany 
and  France  in  piece  goods  and  in  hosiery  and  lace  in  European  and 
American  markets.  One  of  the  effects  of  competition  has  been  to  force 
the  English  mills  to  work  on  finer  yarns  and  on  finer  grades  of  goods. 
The  English  mills  are  located  mainly  in  the  Lancashire  district  which 
is  not  much  larger  than  Rhode  Island.  They  produce  about  $500  000- 
000  worth  of  cotton  goods  annually. 

In  the  United  States  two  thirds  of  all  the  cotton  goods  are  manu- 
factured in  New  England,  Massachusetts  alone  having  over  one  third 
of  all  the  spindles.  In  the  Southern  States  the  number  of  cotton  mills 
is  increasing  more  rapidly  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  and 
they  have  already  about  one  fourth  of  all  the  spindles  in  the  United 
States.  These  mills,  being  situated  near  the  cotton  plantations,  secure 
their  raw  material  at  a  low  price  and  have  plenty  of  cheap  but  unskilled 
labor.  They  are  therefore  forced  to  work  on  low  counts,  or  coarser 
grades  of  goods.  Of  these  the  United  States  makes  more  than  it  can 
use  and  is  therefore  compelled  to  export  them.  The  New  England 
mills  like  those  in  old  England  are  being  forced  each  year  to  work 
more  on  the  higher  counts,  or  finer  grades  of  goods,  which  their  skilled 
labor  enables  them  to  do.  Mercerized  cotton  which  has  the  appearance 
of  silk  is  made  by  treating  the  cotton  yarn  with  caustic  alkali.  Knit 
goods,  hosiery,  lace  curtains,  and  cotton  carpets  are  made  to  a  large 
extent  in  the  Middle  States,  Pennsylvania  and  more  especially  Phila- 
delphia being  the  most  important  centre. 

The  exports  of  cotton  goods  from  the  various  countries  amount 
to  over  $500  000  000  annually,  of  which  two  thirds  were  exported  from 
the  United  Kingdom  alone;  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland  all 
exceed  the  United  States  in  the  value  of  their  exports  of  cotton  goods. 
United  Kingdom's  exports  are  sent  to  every  country  in  the  world, 
India,  which  takes  over  one  fourth,  China,  Turkey,  the  United  States, 
Germany  (principally  yarns),  South  America,  Holland,  and  Belgium 
are  the  largest  buyers.  The  exports  from  Germany  and  Switzerland 
are  sold  mainly  to  United  Kingdom  and  other  European  countries  and 
to  the  United  States.  France  sends  large  quantities  to  Algeria,  Mada- 
gascar, and  Indo-China,  as  well  as  fine  goods  to  the  United  States  and 
European  countries.    Russian  goods  are  sold  mainly  in  Asia  and  in  the 


170  MANUFACTURES. 

Balkan  States  of  Europe.  Japan  and  India  export  cotton  goods  mainly 
to  China. 

The  United  States  imports  about  $42  000  00c  worth  and  exports 
about  $24  00OCX)0  worth  of  cotton  goods.  Of  the  imports  more  than 
one  half  consists  of  lace  and  embroideries  and  one  eighth  of  knit  goods ; 
these  come  mainly  from  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  and 
Switzerland.  Piece  goods  come  from  United  Kingdom.  Exports 
consist  mainly  of  cotton  goods,  China  usually  taking  about  one  haif  of 
them,  and  British  North  America  being  next.  In  the  north  of  China, 
American  cotton  goods  are  preferred  and  that  is  probably  the  only 
region  in  which  the  United  States  secures  its  fair  share  of  the  cotton 
trade.  On  the  east  coast  of  Africa  cotton  goods  are  known  as  "Ameri- 
cans," the  natives  having  for  a  long  time  preferred  those  imported 
from  the  United  States. 

The  increased  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  in  the  United  States 
has  compelled  it  to  seek  an  outlet  for  its  surplus  products.  The  home 
demand  for  piece  goods  of  the  coarser  grades  is  more  than  supplied 
by  its  own  mills.  When  a  larger  number  of  mills  work  on  a  higher 
grade  of  goods  and  on  laces,  embroideries,  etc.,  they  will  supply  the 
home  demand  for  them  which  is  now  met  by  the  imports  from  foreign 
countries. 

WOOLEN    MANUFACTURES. 

Woolen  goods  are  more  suitable  for  clothing  In  cold  and  temperate 
climates  than  cotton.  Formerly  woolen  goods  were  the  most  important 
of  the  textile  fabrics  in  the  manufacturing  regions  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  The  value  of  woolen  manufactures  in  England  in  1800 
was  more  than  double  that  of  all  other  textiles.  Now  they  amount  to 
one  half  that  of  cotton  manufactures.  Many  of  the  processes  in  the 
manufacture  of  wool  are  similar  to  those  of  cotton.  There  are  two 
general  divisions  of  the  manufactures  of  wool, — woolen  goods  and 
worsted  goods.  The  woolen  goods  were  formerly  made  from  short 
stapled  wools  which  were  carded  and  spun  like  cotton,  while  worsted 
goods  were  made  from  long  stapled  wools  which  were  combed  and 
treated  so  that  the  fibres  would  be  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  to  one 
another.    While  by  present  machinery  short  wools  can  be  combed  and 


WOOL.  171 

long  wools  can  be  used  in  making  fulled  cloth,  the  distinction  between 
carded,  or  clothing  yarns  and  worsted  yarns  still  continues. 

When  the  woolen  thread  is  spun  by  machines  similar  to  those  used 
in  cotton  mills,  it  is  woven  into  cloth  on  looms.  After  it  is  woven 
it  is  beaten  with  wooden  mallets  or  hammers  in  a  flat  trough  with  soap 
and  water  to  get  rid  of  the  oil  and  dirt,  and  after  which  clear  water 
is  used.  It  then  goes  to  the  fulling  machine  by  which  the  cloth  is 
pounded  or  rolled  in  a  thick  mixture  of  soap  and  water;  this  causes 
the  fibres  of  the  wool  to  felt  together  so  that  the  threads  cannot  be  seen. 
It  is  then  teasled.  For  this  purpose  teasles,  or  burrs,  are  used  the 
prickles  of  which  catch  in  the  wool  and  pull  up  the  little  threads  and 
make  a  rough  surface  which  when  cut  makes  the  nap. 

The  chief  woolen  goods  are  broad  cloths  fifty  to  sixty  inches  wide — 
these  include  meltons,  beavers,  and  cloakings ;  and  narrow  cloths,  about 
twenty  seven  inches  wide  which  include  cassimeres,  doeskins,  tweeds, 
flannels,  blankets,  and  some  kinds  of  shawls.  Worsted  goods,  named 
for  the  town  in  England  where  they  were  first  made,  do  not  go  through 
the  fulling  process.  They  consist  of  merinos,  serges,  damasks,  poplins, 
mouslins  de  laine,  hosiery,  and  some  kinds  of  carpets.  They  are  some- 
times made  of  mixtures  of  wool  with  cotton,  silk,  linen,  or  other  mate- 
rials. Shoddy  is  the  name  given  to  goods  made  from  the  yarn  obtained 
by  tearing  up  old  woolen  rags  into  fibres  which  are  woven  again.  When 
the  rags  consist  of  tailors'  clippings  a  fine  grade  of  goods  is  made  which 
is  called  mungo.  Over  200  cxdo  000  lbs.  of  cotton  are  used  in  the  United 
States  annually  in  the  manufacture  of  mixed  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

The  foreign  trade  in  woolen  and  worsted  goods  is  more  evenly 
distributed  between  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and  France  than 
that  of  cotton  goods.  The  value  of  their  exports  from  the  United 
Kingdom  is  about  $100000000.  Germany  exports  about  eighty  per 
cent  and  France  about  seventy  per  cent  as  much  as  the  United  King- 
dom. The  United  States  mills  are  engaged  mainly  in  supplying  the 
home  market.  The  exports  amount  to  less  than  $1  500000  and  the 
imports  have  fallen  off  from  $39  000  000  in  1870  to  $16  000  000  in  1900. 
The  imports  consisting  of  cloth  and  dress  goods,  come  mainly  from 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and  France.  The  United  Kingdom's 
manufactories  are  located  largely  in  Yorkshire.     Leeds  is  noted  for 


172 


MANUFACTURES. 


its  woolen  goods,  Bradford  for  its  worsted  goods.  The  exports  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  sold  largely  to  the  United  States,  Canada,  Austra- 
lia, and  to  Asiatic,  South  American,  and  continental  European  countries. 
The  United  States  and  South  America  take  more  worsted  than  woolen 
fabrics.  The  exports  from  France  go  mainly  to  Europe,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  United  States.  Great  Britain  purchases  nearly  one  half  of 
all  the  woolen  goods  exported  from  France.  German  goods  •  are 
exported  mainly  to  other  European  countries  and  to  the  United  States. 
The  woolen  industry  of  the  United  States  is  largely  centered  in  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States,  Massachusetts  leading  in  some  lines 
and  Pennsylvania  in  others.  Pennsylvania  has  the  largest  number  of 
knitting  machines,  followed  by  New  York  which  produces  more  of 
the  finer  grade  of  knit  goods  than  Pennsylvania. 


SILKS. 

The  silk  fibre  as  it  comes  from  the  cocoon  does  not  need  to  be 

spun  like  wool  or  cotton.     The 


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raw  silk  is  made  into  yarn  by 
first  throwing  or  twisting  it  then 
doubling  two  threads  together 
and  passing  it  through  a  number 
of  processes  before  it  is  ready  for 
the  loom.  The  object  is  to  com- 
bine a  number  of  filaments  into 
one  thread  which  is  sometimes 
composed  of  more  than  two  hun- 
dred of  them.  The  dyeing  of 
silk  requires  pure  water.  The 
Jacquard  loom,  the  peculiar  fea- 
tures of  which  can  be  attached 
to  any  loom,  was  first  used  in  the 
manufactures  in  France.  The 
old  hand  loom  which  has  come 
down    from    the    most    ancient 

times  is  still  used  in  the  manufacture  of  many  of  the  fine  grades  of 

goods. 


FIG.  73.— WORLD'S  SILK  MANUFACTURES. 
VALUE  $365  000  000. 

Each  square  =  5i  of  i*. 


SILK,  173 

The  most  important  of  the  silk-manufacturing  nations  are  France, 
tlie  United  States,  Germany,  and  Switzerland;  these  produce  about 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  total  product  of  western  nations.  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Switzerland  are  credited  with  about  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
exports,  and  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States  with  about  eighty 
per  cent  of  the  imports  from  these  nations.  The  Swiss  manufacture 
principally  the  highest  class  of  goods,  their  exports  consisting  mainly 
of  pure  silk  goods  and  ribbons,  and  also  embroideries.  The  Germans 
excel  in  the  cheaper  and  inferior  qualities ;  their  exports  consist  mainly 
of  mixed  silk  goods,  the  value  of  the  ribbons  exported  being  greater 
than  the  dress  goods.  They  also  export  silk  dresses  and  trimmings. 
The  French  are  divided  in  their  manufacture  between  pure  and  mixed 
goods.  The  dress  goods  they  export  amount  to  about  one  third,  and 
the  ribbons,  laces,  tulle,  and  silk  dresses,  each  to  about  one  tenth  of  the 
total  exports.  The  United  Kingdom  re-exports  large  quantities  of 
foreign  goods  in  addition  to  their  exports  of  domestic  goods;  the 
London  warehouses  keep  the  foreign  goods  in  stock  so  that  their  cus- 
tomers need  not  go  to  foreign  countries  to  buy  them.  The  bulk  of  the 
United  Kingdom's  imports  is  silk  dress  goods;  ribbons,  laces,  and 
embroideries  are  also  large  items. 

Lyons  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  is  the  largest  silk-manufacturing 
centre  in  the  world,  producing  annually  about  $80000000  worth; 
St.  Etienne  in  the  same  neighborhood  produces  about  $20  000  000  worth 
of  ribbons.  Crefield-Mulheim  on  the  Rhine  in  Germany,  Zurich  in 
Switzerland,  and  Moscow  in  Russia  are  all  important  silk  towns. 

A  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  silk  industry  in  the  United  States 
by  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  1876.  There  are  now  about  nine  hun- 
dred silk  mills  in  the  United  States.  These  consume  about  one  third 
of  the  world's  raw  silk  and  produce  about  $85000000  worth  of 
silk  goods.  The  largest  number  of  these  are  found  in  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut.  Paterson 
in  New  Jersey  on  account  of  its  pure  water  became  the  centre  of  silk- 
dyeing  and  is  the  largest  silk-manufacturing  city  in  the  United  States. 
The  United  States  produces  everything  in  the  line  of  silk  goods  except 
the  finest  silk  velvets  and  plushes.  The  products  of  American  mills 
average  in  medium  grades  of  goods  as  high  in  quality  as  those  made 


174  MANUFACTURES. 

abroad.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  black  silk  dress  goods.  In  rib- 
bons the  value  of  the  manufactures  amounts  to  $25  000  000,  or  $5  000- 
000  more  than  that  of  France.  Machine  twist  and  sewing  silk  manu- 
factures are  also  large  industries. 

Of  the  imports  about  one  half  consists  of  dress  goods;  laces  and 
embroideries,  spun  silk,  velvets,  and  plushes,  each  amount  to  about  one 
tenth,  and  wearing  apparel  and  ribbons,  each  amount  to  about  one 
twentieth  of  the  total  imports.  France  furnishes  about  one  half  of  the 
silk  imported  into  the  United  States ;  Germany,  Switzerland,  Japan, 
and  the  United  Kingdom  furnish  nearly  all  the  rest.  Japan  exports 
about  $11000000  worth  of  silk  goods  annually  principally  habutae 
and  silk  handkerchiefs,  the  United  States  and  France  being  the  principal 
customers. 

LINENS. 

Linen  goods  formerly  ranked  next  to  wool  in  importance.  The 
export  trade  in  them  is  largely  confined  to  the  United  Kingdom,  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Belgium.  The  United  Kingdom  exports  about 
$25  000  000  worth,  which  is  more  than  the  combined  exports  of  the 
other  three  countries.  About  one  half  the  export  from  the  United 
Kingdom  comes  to  the  United  States.  It  does  not  appear  as  a  separate 
item  in  the  United  States  statistics  but  is  included  in  ''hemp,  jute,  and 
other  fibre  manufactures  imported."  Lawns  and  cambrics  are  the  prin- 
cipal linen  goods.  A  linen  industry  has  been  started  in  the  United 
States,  and  by  means  of  new  machinery  it  will  be  able  to  prepare  the 
fibre  for  the  manufacture  of  linen  goods  cheap  enough  to  admit  of  suc- 
cessful competition  with  the  foreign  raw  material. 

Textile  goods  are  also  made  from  hemp,  jute,  and  other  fibres  in 
large  quantities  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

Iron  and  Steel. 

The  demand  for  the  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  increased 
rapidly  after  the  introduction  of  steam  as  a  motive  power  in  textile 
and  other  manufactures,  and  on  railroads  and  in  steam  navigation. 
The  new  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  invented  by  Bessemer, 
Siemens,  and  others  so  lowered  the  price  of  steel  that  it  became  avail- 
able for  the  manufacture  of  many  articles  formerly  made  of  iron.    One 


IRON  AND  STEEL, 


176 


of  the  most  Important  of  the  new  uses  to  which  steel  was  applied  in 
large  quantities  was  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails.  At  first  the  price 
was  so  high  as  to  prevent  their  use  except  at  points  where,  owing  to 
the  great  amount  of  wear,  iron  rails  had  to  be  renewed  frequently. 
In  1875  the  price  of  steel  rails  was  $69  a  ton;  by  1882  it  had  fallen  so 
low  that  they  could  be  bought  for  $5  a  ton  less  than  iron  rails.  In  1898 
the  price  fell  to  $17.50  a  ton.  At  present  over  ninety  five  per  cent  of  the 
rails  now  in  use  in  the  United  States  are  steel,  and  iron  rails  have  been 
largely  displaced  by  them  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Owing  to  the  discontinuance  of  railroad  building,  on  account  of 
the  collapse  of  railway  credit  during  the  era  of  receiverships  from  1884 
to  1888  other  outlets  for  the  then  large  output  of  steel  had  to  be  found. 
This  led  to  its  use  in  the  building  of  ships,  in  the  construction  of 
buildings  and  bridges,  in  the  manufacture  of  labor-saving  machinery 
and  of  steel  freight  cars ;  and  since  that  time  the  demand  for  steel  has 
increased  enormously.  In  the 
pressed  steel  car  industry  alone 
one  firm  uses  over  half  a  million 
tons  of  steel  annually.  Its  sub- 
stitution for  wood,  brick,  and 
stone,  in  buildings  and  bridges 
also  requires  large  quantities  of 
steel. 

The  manufacturers  of  iron 
and  steel  enter  more  largely  into 
foreign  commerce  than  those  of 
any  other  class  of  manufactures 
except  textiles. 

The  United  States  as  the 
largest  producer  of  crude  iron 
and  steel  naturally  surpasses  all 

other  nations  in  the  quantity  of  its  manufactures  from  them.  The 
large  consumption  of  these  at  home  has  kept  the  iron  and  steel  indus- 
tries of  the  United  States  busy  supplying  the  needs  of  the  home  market 
and  has  also  compelled  it  to  import  large  quantities  of  iron  and  steel 
manufactures  from  other  countries.    In  1880  the  value  of  the  imports 


180 
f70 
160 
150 
40 
30 
liO 
l»0 
100 
90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 

68 

T^ 

75 

78180 

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9? 

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92 

93|34 

Ts 

'96 

'97 

'98 

aaloo 

T\ 

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170 
160 

m 

I/O 

100 

90 
80 
70 
60 
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30 
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— . 

FIG.  74.— AVERAGE  WHOLESALE  PRICE  OF  STEEL 
RAILS  PERTON  ATPITTSBURG.PA.JN  DOLLARS. 


176 


MAN  UFA  CTURES. 


of  these  products  was  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  exports,  and  it 
has  only  been  since  1894  that  the  United  States  exports  exceeded  the 
imports  in  value.  In  1900  the  value  of  the  exports  was  six  times  as 
great  as  that  of  the  imports. 

The  United  Kingdom  has  always  held  the  lead  in  foreign  trade 
in  iron  and  steel  manufactures.  In  1900  the  exports  from  United 
Kingdom  of  iron  and  steel  and  manufactures  thereof,  including  machin- 
ery, amounted  to  nearly  $275  000  000  in  value ;  Germany  exported 
$163000000  worth,  and  the  United  States  $145000000  including 
agricultural  machinery  which  is  classified  separately  in  the  United 
States  statistics.  The  United  Kingdom  also  imports  more  finished  iron 
and  steel  manufactures  than  any  other  nation  except  Russia.    Germany 

ranks  first  in  imports  of  crude 
and  semi-manufactured  iron  and 
steel.  The  United  Kingdom  no 
longer  holds  a  monopoly  in  this 
trade  as  Germany  and  the  United 
States  and  Belgium  are  all  com- 
peting for  a  share  of  it.  Not- 
withstanding this  the  value  of 
the  exports  of  iron  and  steel 
manufactures  from  United 
Kingdom  in  1900  was  larger 
than  in  any  previous  year,  and 
over  $100000000  more  than  in 
1895.  In  addition  to  the  nations 
already  mentioned,  France,  Bel- 
gium, Sweden,  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Italy,  and  Russia  all  have 
large  iron  and  steel  industries, 
and  excepting  Sweden  they  are  all  large  importers  of  the  manufactures 
of  iron  and  steel. 

In  1900  the  United  States  exported  nearly  $10000000  worth  of 
steel  rails  and  about  the  same  amount  of  builder's  hardware  and  tools. 
Of  the  steel  rails  three  fourths  were  sold  to  Canada,  Asiatic  countries, 
Oceanica,  and  Mexico;    of  the  builder's  hardware  and  tools  one  half 


180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
150 
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7C 
60 
50 
40 
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IS 

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Ts 

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t 

180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 

lio 
no 
100 

90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
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IP 

1 

1 

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j 

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/ 

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j 



A 

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f  ' 

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i 

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r* 

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-\, 

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•0 

— 

FIG.  7  5.— UNITED  STATES  IMPORTS  AND  EX- 
PORTS OF  STEEL  MANUFACTURES,  IN  MIL- 
LIONS OF  DOLLARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 


IRON  AND  STEEL,  177 

was  sold  to  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and  Australia.  In  these 
two  lines  of  goods  the  exports  of  the  United  States  are  nearly  equal 
to  those  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Of  pipes  and  fittings  about  $7  000- 
000  worth  was  exported,  more  than  one  third  of  which  was  sold  to 
Europe,  the  United  Kingdom  being  the  largest  buyer.  The  United 
States  exports  more  wire  than  any  other  country.  Agricultural  coun- 
tries are  the  largest  buyers — Australia,  Canada,  Argentina,  Brazil,  and 
British  Africa  purchasing  three  fourths  of  it.  The  United  States  ex- 
ports large  quantities  of  structural  iron.  United  Kingdom,  Canada, 
Mexico,  India,  and  Japan  take  about  one  half  of  it.  Belgium  is  the  larg- 
est exporter  of  this  class  of  iron.  Germany  exports  more  wire  nails  than 
any  other  nation  and  has  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  export  trade  in 
needles.  In  some  lines  of  export  trade  such  as  rails,  wire,  and  struc- 
tural iron  the  United  States  bids  fair  to  hold  the  leading  place. 

In  Germany  the  iron  business  is  carried  on  largely  by  syndicates, 
which  control  the  sale  of  the  output  of  any  industry,  while  in 
the  United  States  large  trusts  have  been  formed.  The  object 
of  both  is  to  find  a  market  abroad  for  their  surplus  products,  and  this 
can  be  more  readily  done  by  means  of  one  general  agency  than  by  a 
number  of  firms  competing  for  the  trade.  The  United  States  Steel 
Company,  made  up  of  a  number  of  large  iron  companies,  is  the  largest 
manufacturing  corporation  of  the  world  and  at  present  controls  more 
than  two  fifths  of  the  world's  output  of  iron  and  steel.  What  effect 
on  the  prices  of  the  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  these  large  accumu- 
lations of  capital  will  have,  the  future  only  can  determine.  In  the  past 
a  rise  in  the  price  of  pig  iron  has  always  been  followed  by  good  times 
and  a  fall  in  the  price  has  been  followed  by  hard  times.  It  is  claimed  by 
some  that  these  large  corporations  will  be  able  to  tide  over  the  hard 
times  and  prevent  the  recurring  crises  which  in  the  past  have  produced 
so  much  misery  and  suffering  by  throwing  out  of  work  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  men  and  women.  If  such  should  be  the  case  they  might  be 
looked  upon  as  the  result  of  the  natural  evolution  of  business  methods 
which  their  organizers  claim  them  to  be  and  not,  as  asserted  by  pthers, 
detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  community  at  large. 

It  is  not  more  than  seventy  five  years  since  the  exportation  of 
machinery  was  prohibited  in  England  and  now  the  United  Kingdom 


178 


MANUFA  CTURRS. 


is  the  largest  exporter  of  machinery  in  the  world.  At  one  time  English 
artisans  skilled  in  the  production  of  machinery  were  forbidden  to  go 
abroad  to  exercise  their  trade,  and  any  that  did,  were  looked  upon  as 
having  betrayed  the  interests  of  their  native  land  and  were  made  to 
suffer  for  it  by  the  confiscation  of  their  property.  The  trade  in  machin- 
ery has,  however,  increased  rapidly  in  the  last  fifty  years  and  the  amount 
of  the  export  trade  in  it  is  a  good  indication  of  the  position  which 
a  country  holds  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  The  value  of  the 
machinery,  including  agricultural,  exported  in  1900  amounted  to 
$100  000  000  from  the  United  Kingdom,  $70  000  000  from  the  United 
States,  and  $48  000  000  from  Germany.  In  all  these  nations  the  exports 
of  machinery  are  greater  than  the  imports.  France  and  Austria  import 
twice  as  much  as  they  export.     Italy  and  Spain  are  rapidly  increasing 

their  exports  of  machinery  and 
will  soon  be  able  to  join  the 
family  of  machinery  exporting 
nations.  Russia,  owing  to  the 
vast  undeveloped  resources  of 
the  country,  is,  as  might  natur- 
ally be  expected,  the  largest  im- 
porter of  machinery,  implements, 
and  rolling  stock.  India  is  also 
a  large  importer  of  machinery. 

The  United  Kingdom  leads 
in  the  exports  of  textile  machin- 
ery, their  value  in  1900  being 
$31  000000,  of  which  European 
countries  bought  two  thirds.  In- 
dia, the  United  States,  and  Japan 
were  the  largest  purchasers  out- 
side  of   Europe.     Most   of   the 


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FIG.  7  6.  — EXPORTS  OF  MACHINERY  OF  UNITED 
STATES.  UNITED  KINGDOM,  GERMANY  AND 
FRANCE  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

(Agricultural  machinery  not  included  in  U.  S.) 

United  States.  Germany. 

United  Kingdom.       —  —  France. 


textile  machinery  made  in  the  United  States  finds  a  market  at  home. 
Germany's  textile  machinery  is  bought  mainly  by  France,  Austria,  and 
Russia. 

The  United   States   exports   of  agricultural   implements,   mainly 
machinery,  in  1900  amounted  to  $16  000  000  and  is  more  than  that  of  all 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


179 


the  other  exporting  countries  cunibined.  Abuut  sixty  two  per  cent  of 
these  goods  is  exported  to  Europe,  chiefly  to  Germany,  France,  United 
Kingdom,  and  Russia.  Outside  of  Europe,  Canada,  Argentina,  Aus- 
traha,  and  Mexico  are  the  largest  buyers.  United  Kingdom  sell  mainly 
to  Europe  and  South  America,  and  Germany  largely  to  Russia.  Agri- 
cultural machinery  has  not  been  in  use  much  more  than  fifty  years  and 
yet  to-day  by  its  means  all  the  ploughing,  cultivating,  seeding,  and 
harvesting  on  a  thousand  acre  farm  can  be  done  by  steam  in  less  time 
than  one  acre  could  formerly  have  been  done. 

Mining  machinery  is  not  separately  classified  in  the  United  States 
statistics ;  it  includes  among  other  things,  electrical  machinery,  pumps, 
and  engines.  South  Africa,  before  the  war,  imported  $10000000 
worth,  a  large  part  of  which  came  from  the  United  States.  In  electrical 
machinery  the  United  States  sur- 
passes all  other  countries  in  the 
value  of  the  exports.  Europe 
buys  most  of  it,  the  United 
Kingdom  being  the  largest  cus- 
tomer. Americans  excel  in  the 
manufacture  of  metal-working 
Jmachines  and  machine  tools. 
Nearly  all  of  the  $7000000 
worth  exported  goes  to  Europe, 
the  United  Kingdom  and  Ger- 
many taking  over  sixty  per  cent 
of  it.  Printing  presses  exported 
from  the  United  States  are  sold 
mainly  to  the  United  Kingdom 
and  her  colonies.  Of  the  $2- 
600000  worth  of  typewriters  exported  in 
sold  to  Europe.     Of  the  three  thousand 


18 
17 
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90 

9? 

92 

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94 

95 

96 

97 

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12 
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13 
12 
II 
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^ 

_ 

^ 

FIG.  77.— UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURAL IMPLEMENTS  (MAINLY  MACHIN- 
ERY)  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 


1900  eighty  per  cent  was 
locomotives  manufactured 
in  the  United  States  in  1900,  over  seven  per  cent  valued  at  $5  500  000 
was  exported.  Russia,  United  Kingdom,  Mexico,  Canada,  France, 
India,  China,  Japan,  South  America,  and  Australia  are  the  largest  pur- 
chasers. The  United  Kingdom  exported  fifty  per  cent  more  than  the 
United  States.     In  1900  about  $4  500  000  worth  of  sewing  machines 


180  MANUFACTURES. 

was  exported  of  which  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  imported 
more  than  one  half. 

Leather. 

In  many  countries  skins  were  used  for  clothing  long  before  any 
of  the  textile  fabrics  were  in  general  use.  The  manufacture  of  leather 
was  probably  one  of  the  earliest  industries.  The  value  of  the  imports 
and  exports  of  the  raw  materials  and  the  manufactures  made  from  them 
is  only  exceeded  by  that  of  textiles  and  that  of  iron  and  steel. 

When  hides,  or  skins,  are  brought  to  the  tanner  they  are  first 
cleansed  by  soaking  in  water,  and  the  adhering  flesh  is  scraped  off  with 
knives.  They  are  then  put  into  vats  containing  lime  or  some  similar 
substance  having  the  effect  of  loosening  the  hair  so  that  it  can  be 
readily  scraped  off.  After  the  skins  have  been  thus  cleaned  they  are 
generally  put  into  vats  with  some  of  the  various  tanning  materials  or 
solutions  which,  acting  on  the  gelatine  in  the  hides,  form  leather. 

Oak  and  hemlock  bark  are  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
sole  leather.  The  tanned  hides  are  dressed  or  curried  to  improve  the 
compactness  of  the  texture  and  to  give  a  better  appearance  to  the 
leather.  Upper  leathers  are  softened  by  the  use  of  fats  and  oils,  and 
blackened  with  lampblack.  Calf  and  kid  leathers  for  gloves  go  through 
a  process,  called  tawing,  to  soften  them.  For  this  purpose  alum  and 
other  salts  are  used.  For  the  finer  grades  a  paste  made  of  flour  and 
the  yolks  of  eggs  is  often  used ;  many  factories  consume  million  of  eggs 
a  year  in  this  process.  Twenty  years  ago  glazed  kid  and  fine  calf 
leathers  were  obtained  almost  entirely  from  France. 

By  what  is  known  as  chrome  tannage,  which  is  really  a  curing 
process,  a  finer  grade  of  leather  is  now  made  in  the  United  States. 
This  leather  is  said  to  be  water  proof  as  it  can  be  washed  in  water 
without  injury.  The  bichromate  of  potash  causes  the  pores  of  the  skin 
to  contract.  Chrome  leathers  are  used  for  light  footwear  of  black 
glazed  kid  or  colored  calf. 

While  the  skins  of  most  mammals  are  converted  into  leather  those 
of  cattle,  goats,  sheep,  and  horses  are  most  generally  used.  Heavy 
leathers  are  made  from  the  hides  of  bulls  and  oxen,  that  of  cows  giving 
an  inferior  leather.  A  soft  leather  for  boots  and  shoes  is  obtained  from 
calves  hides.     Horse  hides  are  used  largely  in  saddlery.     The  best 


LEATHER. 


181 


saddles  are  made  from  pigskin.  Genuine  morocco,  so  called  because 
it  first  came  from  that  country,  is  made  from  goat  skins.  Kid  gloves 
are  made  from  the  skins  of  kids  and  lambs ;  most  of  the  so  called  dog- 
skin gloves  are  made  from  lamb  skins.  Russian  leather  owes  its  pecu- 
liar odor  to  the  Russian  birch  or  the  oil  made  from  it  with  which  it  is 
tanned.  The  process  is  now  used  in  the  United  States,  the  secret  of 
it  having  been  discovered  by  a  minister  to  Russia  from  the 
United  States,  who  had  formerly  been  a  tanner.  Patent  leather  is  made 
by  covering  the  leather  with  a  paste  of  linseed  oil  and  lampblack  and 
then  varnishing  it.  Enamelled  leather  used  for  carriages  is  the  same 
thing  with  a  thinner  coat  of  varnish. 

^  The  great  leather  manufacturing  nations  are  the  United  States, 
Germany,  France,  and  the  United  Kingdom.  In  19CX)  the  value  of  the 
exports  of  leather  from  the  United  States  and  France  was  $21  000000 
each,  from  Germany  $17  500  000, 
and  from  the  United  Kingdom 
$7500000.  The  United  States 
imports  about  one  third  as  much 
leather  as  it  exports.  These  con- 
sist mainly  of  morocco  skins 
from  United  Kingdom  and  In- 
dia, and  upper  leather  from  Ger- 
many, United  Kingdom  and 
France.  The  exports  of  sole 
leather  from  the  United  States 
are  about  one  half  the  value  of 
upper  leather.  Seventy  five  per 
cent  of  the  sole  leather  and  sixty 
six  per  cent  of  the  upper  leather 
is  sold  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  about  eleven  per  cent  of  the 
sole  and  twenty  two  per   cent 

of  the  upper  leather  to  other  European  countries.  Canada,  Australia, 
Japan,  and  Brazil  are  the  next  largest  buyers.  The  United  King- 
dom, while  ranking  low  as  an  exporter  of  leather,  imports  more 
leather  than   all  the   other  large  manufacturing  countries.     Of  the 


18 
17 

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15 
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8 
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FIG.  78.— UNITED  STATES  IMPORTS  AND  EX- 
PORTS OF  UPPER  LEATHER  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
DOLLARS. 

Imports. 

. ,  Exports. 


182  MANUFACTURES. 

$43  000  000  worth  imported  in  1900,  the  United  States  and  India  sup- 
pHed  the  largest  amount,  followed  by  France,  Germany,  and  Austria. 
Germany's  exports  consist  largely  of  colored  skins  and  dressed  leathers, 
and  France  like  Germany  exports  large  amounts  of  glove  leather. 
The  American  manufacturers  import  large  quantities  of  cattle  hides 
from  other  countries,  on  which  they  pay  fifteen  per  cent  duties;  and 
after  paying  freight  both  ways  and  higher  wages,  the  leather  is  sold 
in  the  country  from  which  the  hides  came  cheaper  than  their  manu- 
facturers can  afford  to  sell  it.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  use  of  machin- 
ery wherever  it  is  possible  and  to  the  fact  that  many  tanners  confine 
their  work  mainly  to  one  grade  of  leather.  In  upper  leathers,  owing 
to  the  superiority  of  the  American  product,  the  exports  have  trebled  in 
value  since  1890.  Boston  is  the  largest  market  for  sole  leather,  and 
Philadelphia  for  morocco  and  glazed  kid. 

France  exports  more  goods  manufactured  from  leather  than  any 
other  country ;  Germany,  United  Kingdom,  and  Austria  follow.  France 
leads  in  the  value  of  the  exports  of  gloves  with  about  $7  500  000  worth, 
followed  by  Germany,  Austria,  and  Belgium.  The  United  Kingdom 
imports  about  $8  500  000  worth  and  the  United  States  $6  000  000 
worth,  mainly  from  France,  Germany,  and  Austria;  Belgium  and 
other  European  countries  furnish  smaller  amounts. 

United  Kingdom  leads  in  the  value  of  exports  of  shoes  (about 
$7000000  worth  in  1900),  followed  by  the  United  States,  France,  and 
Germany.  British  shoes  find  their  best  markets  in  Africa,  Australia, 
and  India ;  American  shoes  in  Australia  and  United  Kingdom ;  French 
shoes  in  Algeria  and  other  French  colonies ;  and  German  shoes  in 
other  European  countries.  American  shoes  are/ rapidly  increasing  in 
popularity  in  foreign  countries.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  introduction 
of  machinery,  which  enables  the  manufacturer  to  turn  out  large  quan- 
tities of  neat  and  cheap  shoes,  one  man  making  eight  hundred  pairs 
of  women's  shoes  a  day.  Ten  years  ago  an  American  shoe  was  unknown 
in  most  countries.  Now  England  and  Germany  both  large  shoe  manu- 
facturing and  exporting  nations,  import  large  quantities  of  American 
shoes.  American  manufacturers  have  also  been  successful  in  Aus- 
tralia and  other  British  colonies,  and  are  succeeding  in  the  sale  of  their 
goods  in  South  America  and  other  markets  formerly  entirely  supplied 


DRUGS  AND  MEDICINES. 


183 


by  European  countries.  Over  one  half  of  the  more  than  $4  000CX)o 
worth  of  shoes  exported  from  the  United  States  in  19CX),  were  sold 
to  Australia  and  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  value  of  the  shoes  manufactured  in  the  United  States  in  1900 
was  about  $600  000  000,  of  which  about  one  fourth  were  made  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Lynn  is  the  largest  shoe-manufacturing  town  and  Boston 
the  largest  shoe-distributing  centre.  Brockton,  Haverhill,  Rochester, 
Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  other  points  have  large  shoe  industries. 

Chemical  Industries. 

The  chemical  industries  include  three  distinct  classes  01  goods : — 
drugs  and  medicines,  materials  for  the  use  of  manufactures,  and  fer- 
tilizers.   Germany  leads  all  other 


nations  in  the  value  of  chemicals 
exported,  which  in  1900  was 
$86000000;  those  of  United 
Kingdom  amounted  to  $46000- 
000,  of  the  United  States  to 
$20  000  000,  and  of  France  to 
$20  000  000.  The  United  States 
imported  $53  000  000  worth  in 
1900,  which  was  more  than  the 
imports  of  any  other  nation. 

DRUGS    AND    MEDICINES. 

Cinchona,  from  which  qui- 
nine is  made,  is  found  native  in 
Peru  and  other  countries  in  the 
tropical  Andes  where  it  grows 
at    an    elevation    of    from    five 

to  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  It  is 
Ceylon  and  Jamaica.  The  United  States  imported 
worth  in  bark  and  nearly  $1  000000  worth  in  the  form  of  sulphate  of 
quinine,  mainly  from  Netherlands,  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and 
other  European  countries  where  it  had  been  prepared  for  use.  It  is 
used  as  a  medicine  in  malarial  and  other  fevers. 


fl 

48 
45 
41 
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36 
77 

70 

75 

80 

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95m 

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97;98 

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FIG.  79.— UNITED  STATES  CHEMICAL  IMPORTS 
AND  EXPORTS  1870-1900  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
DOLLARS,  NOT  INCLUDING  FERTILIZERS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 


m 


cultivated 
over   $500000 


184  MANUFACTURES. 

Camphor  in  commerce  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  by  distilling  the 
wood  of  the  camphor  tree  with  water.  This  tree  is  found  in  China, 
Japan,  Borneo,  and  Formosa.  The  world's  consumption  is  estimated 
at  ten  million  four  hundred  thousand  pounds  per  annum  of  which 
about  one  half  comes  from  the  island  of  Formosa.  The  United  States 
imports  about  $500000  worth  of  crude  camphor  mainly  from  Japan. 
It  is  used  in  medicine,  also  as  an  insecticide  to  protect  woolen  clothing, 
and  with  guncotton  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  high  explosives. 

Licorice  is  a  native  of  Italy  and  southern  Europe.  It  is  used 
largely  as  a  medicine.  It  is  also  used  to  sweeten  tobacco  and  to  give 
body  and  a  sweet  taste  to  porter  and  Scotch  ale.  The  United  States 
imported  $1  667  000  worth  in  1900,  two  thirds  of  which  came  from 
Turkey  in  Asia,  and  one  fourth  from  Russia  on  the  Black  Sea. 

Vanilla  beans  are  the  product  of  a  plant  found  mainly  in  the  damp 
woods  of  southern  Mexico ;  it  is  also  cultivated  in  Brazil,  Madagascar, 
and  Java.  It  was  formerly  used  as  a  medicine,  but  is  now  principally 
used  for  flavoring  confectionery,  liquors,  tobacco,  and  perfumery.  The 
United  States  imported  over  $1  200  000  worth  in  1900,  about  two  thirds 
of  which  came  from  Mexico. 

Ginseng  is  the  most  popular  medicine  in  China,  where  it  is  believed 
to  insure  immunity  from  disease  and  to  prolong  life  itself.  Over 
$800000  worth  were  exported  from  the  United  States  to  China,  the 
American  variety  being  imported  in  large  quantities.  Medicines  patent 
and  proprietary  were  exported  to  the  value  of  nearly  $3  000  000  in  1900 
of  which  the  United  Kingdom  alone  purchased  over  one  third. 

MATERIALS    FOR    USE    IN    MANUFACTURES. 

Of  the  many  materials  used  in  manufactures,  coal  tar  products  are 
of  considerable  importance:  among  these  are  solid  blocks  of  carbolic 
acid ;  saccharin,  an  intensely  sweet  substance ;  oil  of  mirbane,  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  soap ;  anthracin,  the  basis  of  alizarin,  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  indigo ;  and  aniline,  the  basis  of  coal  tar  colors  and  dyes.  In 
1900  Germany  exported  $18  000000  worth  of  these  coal  tar  colors  and 
the  United  States  imported  $5  000  000  worth  all  of  which  could  be  made 
in  this  country  from  the  waste  prodwct  of  gas  and  coke  manufactures. 


MATERIALS  FOR  USE  IN,  185 

Algols  are  deposited  in  the  fermentation  of  wine  and  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  tartaric  acid.  Tartaric  acid  is  used  as  a  mordant 
in  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  also  in  baking  powders  and  effervescing 
drinks.  The  United  States  imported  over  $2  300  000  worth  mainly 
from  France  and  Italy. 

Glycerine  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  soap 
and  candles.  It  is  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  such  as  preserving 
fruit,  making  copying  inks,  to  add  to  wood  pulp  to  keep  the  paper 
soft  and  as  a  glue  or  dressing  of  muslins.  When  treated  with  a  solution 
of  nitric  acid  or  a  strong  solution  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  it  is 
converted  into  nitro  glycerine  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
dynamite  and  other  explosives.  The  United  States  imported  over 
$2  100  000  worth  in  1900,  mainly  from  United  Kingdom  and  France, 
the  great  soap-manufacturing  countries. 

Chloride  of  lime  is  a  white  powder  used  for  bleaching  textiles  and 
paper  pulp.  The  bleaching  constituent  dissolves  in  about  ten  parts  of 
water  while  the  excess  of  lime  is  undissolved.  Its  value  is  manifested 
only  on  the  addition  of  an  acid.  It  is  prepared  by  the  absorption  of 
chlorine  gas  by  lime.  Over  $1  400000  worth  was  imported  in  1900, 
mainly  from  the  United  Kingdom. 

Soda  ash,  formerly  obtained  from  sea  weed,  is  now  obtained  from 
common  salt.  It  is  produced  in  immense  quantities,  and  consumed 
in  soap  and  glass  manufactures  and  in  bleaching.  There  has  been  a 
steady  increase  in  demand  and  supply.  Over  $600000  worth  was 
imported  in  1900,  almost  entirely  from  the  United  Kingdom. 

Iodine  is  obtained  from  sea  weed  and  from  crude  nitre  from  Chile ; 
it  is  used  in  photography  and  in  pharmacy.  Of  the  $1  400000  worth 
imported  in  1900,  Chile  furnished  the  bulk. 

Sulphate  of  copper,  of  which  the  United  States  exports  over 
$2  000  000  worth,  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  as  a  by-product  in 
silver  refining.  It  is  largely  used  in  bronzing  iron,  in  dyeing  and 
printing,  in  electric  batteries,  and  in  the  amalgamation  process  of  refin- 
ing silver,  and,  under  the  name  of  bluestone,  it  is  used  by  farmers  to 
kill  fungoid  growths  in  gardens. 

Acetate  of  lime,  of  which  over  $700000  worth  was  exported  in 
IQOO  to  Belgium,  Germany,  and  the  United  Kingdom,  is  a  by-product 


186  MANUFACTURES. 

in  the  manufacture  of  wood  alcohol,  and  is  used  In  making  acetic  acid 
and  other  chemicals. 

Nitrate  of  potassium,  or  potassium  saltpetre,  is  found  in  Spain, 
Hungary,  Egypt,  and  India;  also  in  Ceylon  and  some  parts  of  South 
America.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  in  glass  making, 
and  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  three  great  Commercial  Acids  are  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  hydro- 
chloric, of  which  several  hundred  tons  a  day  are  consumed.  Sulphuric 
acid  is  obtained  from  iron  pyrites;  nitric  acid  from  Chile  saltpetre 
acted  on  by  sulphuric  acid;  and  hydrochloric,  or  muriatic  acid,  from 
salt  acted  on  by  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphuric  acid  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soda  and  wood  pulp;  nitric  acid  to  make  nitro  glycerine; 
and  muriatic  acid  in  making  bleaching  powders.  These  are  all  made 
in  sufficient  quantities  in  this  country  to  supply  the  demand. 

FERTILIZERS. 

The  most  important  elements  necessary  for  the  building  up  of 
plants  supplied  by  fertilizers  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 
Nitrogen  develops  the  growth  of  the  stem  and  leaves.  Potash  is  essen- 
tial in  the  formation  of  starch  in  leaves  and  fruit.  Phosphoric  acid 
aids  in  the  nutrition  of  plants  and  in  the  assimilating  of  other  useful 
elements.  It  is  formed  largely  in  the  seeds  of  plants,  and  without  its 
presence  in  the  soil  the  plant  will  not  come  to  maturity.  Lime  is  used 
to  improve  the  mechanical  conditions  of  the  soil  and  to  cure  sourness. 
These  elements  may  be  obtained  from  a  great  variety  of  substances, 
some  of  which  enter  largely  into  the  foreign  trade  of  various  nations. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  nitrogenous  guano,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and 
organic  nitrogenous  manures,  such  as  dried  blood  and  fish  oflfal,  are  the 
principal  sources  of  nitrogen.  These  need  to  be  combined  with  about 
three  times  as  much  phosphate.  Phosphatic  rocks,  phosphatic  guano, 
slag,  and  the  super  phosphates  made  from  them,  are  the  principal 
sources  of  phosphoric  acid.  Potash  may  be  obtained  from  wood  ashes, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  supplies  for  agricultural  purposes  is  obtained  from 
potassic  salts,  such  as  muriate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  potash. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  or  Chile  saltpetre,  is  obtained  from  the  deserts  of 
Atacama  and  Tarapaca  near  Iquique,  Chile.     The  deposits  are  found 


FERTILIZER. 


187 


under  the  surface  of  a  vast  desert  plain  which  at  one  time  was  covered 
by  the  ocean.  The  ore  is  in  layers  two  to  four  feet  thick  and  about 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface.  When  refined,  the  nitrates  are  in  solid 
form,  about  ninety  per  cent  pure  nitrate.  About  one  million  four 
hundred  thousand  tons  were  exported  from  Chile  in  1900,  mainly  to 
United  Kingdom  and  Gerrnany.  Germany  consumes  about  one  third 
of  it.  United  Kingdom  and  France  together  about  another  third.  The 
United  States  imported  about  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  thousand 
tons  worth  $5  000  000. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  formed  from  waste  material  produced  in 
the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  and  coke.    The  world's  consump- 
tion  amounts   to  about  five  hundred  thousand   tons   annually   worth 
$26000000,    the    United    King- 
dom   and    Germany    being    the 
largest  producers.     The  United 
States    imports    about    $400000 
worth. 

Nitrog^enous  guanos  are 
found  in  dry  regions  like  Peru. 
Dried  blood  is  obtained  from  the 
slaughter  houses,  and  fish  offal 
from  the  fish  oil  factories  and  in 
the  United  States  also  from  the 
menhaden  fisheries.  A  billion 
fish  making  over  four  hundred 
thousand  tons  are  sometimes 
caught  in  one  season  for  use  as 
fertilizers. 

Rock  phosphates  are  mineral  phosphates  of  sedimentary  origin 
and  are  obtained  mainly  from  the  United  States,  France,  Algeria, 
Tunis,  Belgium,  and  many  other  places  in  a  crystalline  form  called 
apatite,  or  non-crystalline  phosphorite.  Florida,  South  Carolina,  and 
Tennessee  are  the  largest  producing  states.  Florida  alone  produces 
more  than  any  foreign  country.  Algeria  and  Tunis,  being  near  the 
consuming  countries,  influence  the  price  of  American  phosphates.  The 
high  grade  of  Florida  phosphate  makes  it  in  great  demand  in  Germany. 


9 

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FIG.    80.— UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS  OF  FER- 
TILIZERS   IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 


188  MANUFACTURES. 

Phosphate  guanos  are  obtained  from  the  carcasses  and  dung-  of 
birds  deposited  on  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Caribean  Sea, 
and  other  tropical  waters.  Slag  is  the  refuse  product  of  iron  furnaces 
using  ores  containing  phosphorus  and  is  used  largely  in  Germany 
and  United  Kingdom  on  account  of  its  cheapness.  All  of  these  as  well 
as  bones  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  super-phosphates.  They  are 
all  phosphates  of  lime,  and  by  the  addition  of  the  proper  amount  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  a  mass  is  formed  which  is  ground  and  sold  as  super-phos- 
phate. One  ton  of  phosphate  makes  about  four  thousand  pounds  of  the 
mixture'.  The  world's  production  of  phosphate  amounts  to  over  three 
million  tons,  over  one  half  of  which  is  made  in  the  United  States.  Of 
the  super-phosphate  the  United  States  manufactures  one  third  and 
France  one  fifth.  The  United  States  exported  over  $6  ooo  ooo  worth 
of  crude  phosphate  in  1900,  of  which  Germany  purchased  forty  per 
cent,  United  Kingdom  and  Holland  being  the  next  largest  buyers. 

Phosphates  are  supposed  to  be  formed  from  the  fossil  dung  or  car- 
casses of  innumerable  water  fowl.  They  sometimes  occur  as  river  de- 
posits and  at  others  as  land  deposits,  but  chemically  they  are  the  same. 
Dredges  are  used  to  obtain  them  out  of  the  river  bottoms  and  the  land 
deposits  are  mined  or  dug  out.  It  is  afterwards  washed  to  free  it  from 
other  impurities,  and  kilned  to  free  it  from  moisture.  It  occurs  in 
nodules  from  an  ounce  to  a  ton  in  weight,  and  in  beds  varying  from 
a  few  inches  to  fifty  feet  in  thickness.  In  Florida  it  also  occurs  in  the 
form  of  pebbles  and  water  worn  grains. 

Potash  may  be  obtained  from  the  ashes  of  all  plants,  but  the  bulk 
of  the  world's  supply  for  agricultural  purposes  is  obtained  from  the 
potassic  salts  manufactured  at  Strassfurt,  Germany.  These  deposits 
are  found  in  Central  Germany  in  the  provinces  of  Hanover  and  Saxony, 
where  they  form  a  deposit  of  over  one  thousand  feet  in  thickness. 
The  raw  salts  are  concentrated  and  converted  into  potash  fertilizers, 
muriate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  potash  containing  the  largest  per- 
centage of  potash.  In  1900  the  United  States  imported  over  $2  700  000 
worth  of  these  from  Germany.  Germany  consumes  more  commercial 
fertilizer  than  any  other  country,  France  is  second;  United  Kingdom, 


PAPER.  189 

I)elgium,  Holland,  and  other  European  countries  also  consume  large 
amounts.  The  United  States,  in  proportion  to  the  area  cultivated, 
does  not  consume  as  great  a  quantity  of  artificial  fertilizers  as  European 
countries,  but  their  use  is  steadily  increasing. 

Paper. 

The  ancients  did  not  have  such  paper  as  is  now  in  common  use. 
They  made  a  kind  of  paper  from  the  inner  bark  of  a  reed-like  plant, 
called  the  papyrus,  from  which  our  word  paper  comes.  The  strips  of 
this  bark  were  laid  side  by  side  slightly  overlapping  and  then  pressed, 
the  juices  of  the  plant  causing  them  to  stick  together.  The  word 
"library"  from  Latin  "liber"  a  bark,  and  book  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
"boc"  for  beech,  show  that  the  barks  of  trees  were  used  for  similar 
purposes  by  our  European  ancestors.  The  Chinese  were  the  first  to 
make  paper  from  pulp ;  they  used  the  wood  of  the  cotton  plant.  The 
knowledge  of  this  method  first  reached  Europe  through  the  Arabs. 
Cotton  and  linen  rags,  old  paper,  straw,  and  esparto  grass  and  other 
substances  were  for  a  long  time  the  only  sources  of  supply  of  paper- 
making  materials.  The  spread  of  education  and  the  exciting  events 
of  the  last  fifty  years  created  a  demand  for  news  and  led  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  newspaper,  and  the  growth  of  literary  taste  led  to  the 
development  of  book-making.  Paper  makers  were  not  able  to  supply 
the  demand  for  paper  and  this  led  to  the  invention  of  wood  pulp  for 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  Wood  pulp  besides  being  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper  is  now  made  into  so  many  things  that  it  may 
be  said  that  there  is  nothing  which  cannot  be  made  out  of  paper. 
Grease-proof  paper  for  wrapping  butter,  fire-proof  paper  used  in  the 
interior  of  cars  and  war  ships,  car  wheels,  water  mains  where  cast  iron 
would  oxidize,  steam  pipes,  window  panes  in  which  the  paper  is  made 
translucent  by  chemical  processes  and  used  where  the  constant  vibra- 
tion of  the  building  would  break  glass,  clothing,  water  proofs,  are 
among  the  articles  made  from  it;  it  is  also  spun  into  fabrics  for  the 
manufacture  of  tablecloths,  etc.  A  paper  axe  has  been  made  with  an 
edge  hard  enough  for  use  in  cutting.  In  making  paper  from  rags  and 
other  similar  materials,  they  are  chopped  and  the  dust  blown  out  of 
them ;   they  are  then  boiled  in  water  with  soda  and  lime,  and  put  into 


190  MANUFACTURES. 

a  pulp  machine  in  which  the  rags  are  washed  clean,  bleached  white, 
and  beaten  into  pulp.  Coloring  for  colored  paper  is  added  to  the  pulp, 
clay  is  added  to  make  it  heavier  and  smoother,  and  at  present  casein, 
formerly  glue,  for  sizing  is  added  to  harden  the  surface  of  the 
paper,  otherwise  the  ink  would  run  on  it  just  as  it  does  on  blotting 
paper. 

Wood  pulp  may  be  made  mechanically  or  chemically.  The  mechan- 
ical pulp  process  was  the  first  invented.  It  consists  in  grinding  the 
wood  pulp  and  there  is  no  separation  of  the  cellulose  from  impurities  by 
chemical  processes.  The  cheaper  grades  of  paper  are  made  from  it  and 
are  used  for  newspaper  and  other  cheap  publications.  The  Sunday  edi- 
tion of  one  of  the  large  newspapers,  like  the  New  York  World,  con- 
sumes the  product  of  fifty  cords  of  wood.  There  are  two  chemical  pro- 
cesses :  First,  the  sulphite  process,  in  which  the  wood  is  chopped  up  and 
put  into  a  digester  with  sulphite  of  lime.  This  separates  the  impurities 
from  the  cellulose  fibre.  After  washing  and  bleaching  it  is  made  into 
a  sheet  like  blotting  paper  for  ease  of  transportation,  and  run  over  a 
heated  cylinder  which  dries  out  the  moisture.  This  is  used  in  making 
the  finest  grades  of  paper.  Second,  the  soda  process,  which  is  made 
in  the  same  way  only  caustic  soda  is  used.  Spruce  is  the  principal 
wood  used  in  the  sulphite  process,  but  in  the  soda  process  a  great  variety 
of  woods  are  used. 

The  use  of  wood  pulp  has  changed  the  source  of  supply  for  the 
materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  Instead  of  being  depen- 
dent on  rags  and  paper  from  densely  populated  countries,  they  now 
obtain  what  they  need  from  the  forests  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Canada,  and  the  United  States.  Many 
kinds  of  woods  are  used,  but  the  spruces  and  balsams  which  are  found 
in  Maine  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  are  considered  the  best 
for  fine  papers.  Canada  has  at  present  the  largest  known  sources  of 
supply;  it  could  furnish  a  million  tons  annually  for  fifty  years,  and  as 
thirty  years  is  sufficient  time  for  the  trees  to  grow  large  enough,  they 
could  keep  up  the  supply  permanently.  Beach,  maple,  and  other  kinds 
suitable  for  wood  pulp  can  be  found  abundantly  in  the  United  States. 

The  chief  paper-manufacturing  countries  are  the  United  States, 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  Austria,  and  Belgium.     The  chief 


PAPER. 


191 


exporting  countries  of  paper  are  Germany,  France,  United  Kingdom, 
United  States,  Austria,  and  Belgium.  Tlie  United  States  is  now  the 
greatest  producer  of  paper  in  the  world,  but  the  export  trade  in  paper 
is  not  so  large  as  in  some  other  countries  because  the  home  demands 
have  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  manufacturers  were  able  to  sup- 
ply them.  The  value  of  the  exports  of  paper  from  the  United  States  in 
1900  was  over  $6  000  000  or  more  than  five  times  as  much  as  it  was  in 
1890.  The  United  Kingdom  is  the  largest  purchaser  of  American 
paper,  and  its  colonies,  Australia  and  Canada,  are  next  in  importance, 
followed  by  Japan. 

Germany  exports  mainly  to  other  European  countries;    it  has  also 
a  large  trade  with  Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Japan.     Belgium  exports 
almost  entirely  to  other  European  countries  and  also  to  Argentina, 
Brazil,  and  the  Dutch  East  In- 
dies.   Algeria  and  Brazil  outside 
of  Europe  are  the  most  impor- 
tant markets  for  French  paper. 
Austria  sends  large  quantities  of 
paper  to  India  and  Egypt  as  well 
as  to  other  European  countries. 
The   United   Kingdom's   largest 
customers  are  Australia,  Africa, 
India,   France,   and   the  United 
States. 

The  first  paper  mill  in  the 
United  States  was  established  by 
William  Rittenhouse  in  1690  at 
Germantown,  Philadelphia,  on 
Paper  Mill  Run,  a  small  stream 

flowing  into  the  Wissahickon.  Holyoke,  Massachusetts,  is  the  greatest 
paper  centre  in  the  world,  turning  out  two  hundred  tons  a  day.  There 
are  over  a  thousand  paper  mills  in  the  United  States  and  their  total 
product  amounts  to  about  three  million  five  hundred  thousand  tons 
annually,  valued  at  over  $150  000000.    New  York  leads  in  the  amount 


FIG.    81.— UNITED    STATES  PAPER    EXPORTS- 
MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 


192  MANUFACTURES, 

of  wood  pulp  paper,  followed  by  Maine  and  Wisconsin ;  Massachusetts 
in  the  value  of  output  with  $25  000  000,  followed  by  New  York  with 
nearly  the  same  amount  and  Maine,  Wisconsin  and  Pennsylvania  with 
$iO(X)0  000  worth  each. 

Pottery. 

Pottery  is  known  under  the  name  of  earthenware,  stoneware,  and 
porcelain  or  chinaware ;  the  first  two  are  made  from  an  infusible  earthy 
mixture  which  remains  opaque  after  it  comes  out  of  the  kiln,  while 
porcelain  is  made  from  a  fusible  earthy  mixture  combined  with  an 
infusible  one  which  becomes  semi-vitrified  and  translucent  in  the  kiln. 

Earthenware  is  soft  and  porous  and  in  this  condition  it  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  flowerpots.  When  it  is  to  be  made  into  fine  table- 
ware it  is  covered  with  a  thick  glass  varnish,  called  glaze,  which  fills 
the  pores,  giving  it  a  smooth  glassy  appearance.  It  is  known  by  vari- 
ous names  derived  from  the  places  where  the  different  kinds  were  once 
made,  as  Faience  from  Faenza,  Italy,  Majolica  from  the  island  of  Ma- 
jorca, and  Delft  from  a  town  in  Holland  where  a  certain  kind  of  blue- 
ware  was  first  made. 

Stoneware  differs  from  earthenware  in  having  the  clay  melted 
together  so  as  to  be  no  longer  porous.  It  is  a  hard,  close  grained 
pottery.  Porcelain,  or  chinaware  as  it  is  sometimes  called  because  it 
came  first  from  China,  is  the  finest  kind  of  pottery.  It  is  hard  and 
fine  grained  and  so  thin  that  light  shines  through  it. 

Various  kinds  of  clay  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  different 
kinds  of  pottery.  Alumina  from  the  clays  and  silica  from  the  sands 
are  the  principal  substances.  In  the  manufacture  of  hard  porcelain 
potash  is  used,  of  soft  porcelain  soda,  and  of  stoneware  baryta.  Iron 
is  injurious  causing  the  clay  to  fuse  during  baking.  In  making  the 
common  kinds  of  pottery  the  clay  and  other  substances  are  ground  up 
in  a  mill  with  water  to  make  a  paste.  In  the  finer  grades  they  are 
mixed  dry  and  water  is  added,  making  a  fine  thin  paste  called  "slip." 
This  is  strained  until  it  is  the  proper  thickness  for  moulding  in  which 
state  it  is  formed  into  the  various  shapes  required  on  a  potter's  wheel 
or  over  plaster  moulds.  These  are  dried  in  a  drying  room  and  after- 
ward baked  in  a  kiln  or  oven  for  a  day  and  a  half.     The  fire  is  allowed 


POTTERY.  193 

to  go  out  and  the  pieces  are  cooled  gradually.  In  this  state  they  are 
called  ''biscuit  ware."  The  glaze  is  then  put  on.  For  earthenware 
this  is  made  out  of  white  clay  and  ground  quartz,  feldspar,  or  other 
substances,  mixed  with  water  so  as  to  make  a  white  liquid.  Each 
piece  is  dipped  into  this  glaze  and  placed  on  a  shelf  or  bench.  The 
water  sinks  into  the  pores  and  a  film  of  glaze  is  left  on  the  outside. 
The  pieces  are  then  baked  in  a  glaze  kiln  which  melts  the  glaze  and 
spreads  it  evenly  over  the  surface.  Painting  or  decoration  is  put  on 
the  biscuit,  the  colors  being  under  the  glaze  are  durable. 

Porcelain  is  made  from  the  paste  of  a  very  fine  white  clay,  or 
kaolin,  mixed  with  other  substances.  When  cooled  after  baking  the 
first  time,  the  pieces  are  dipped  in  a  different  kind  of  glaze  from  that 
used  in  earthenware.  This  when  heated  in  the  kiln,  forms  a  glassy 
surface  so  thin  and  clear  that  light  will  shine  through  it.  Porcelain 
is  sometimes  painted  in  the  biscuit  and  sometimes  outside  the  glaze. 
The  paints  are  made  of  colored  glass  ground  fine  and  mixed  with  oil 
of  turpentine  and  put  on  with  brushes;  the  pieces  are  afterwards  put 
in  the  kiln  to  be  fired  again. 

Pottery  is  an  ancient  art  which  has  existed  in  some  form  among 
almost  all  the  earlier  nations.  Many  of  its  methods  have  come  down 
to  the  modern  world  from  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  through 
Greece  and  Rome.  The  Arabs  brought  the  art  into  Spain  where  Ma- 
jolica was  made.  Palissy,  a  French  painter,  discovered  the  secret  of  the 
manufacture,  of  Majolica  ware  and  introduced  it  into  France.  Delft 
was  made  in  Holland  about  the  same  time  and  from  there  its  manu- 
facture spread  to  England.  Wedgwood  developed  a  number  of  new 
kinds  of  pottery  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  English  pottery  trade. 
In  America  after  many  vicissitudes  this  industry  has  grown  so,  that 
now  most  of  the  pottery  used  in  the  United  States  is  of  home  manu- 
facture. Trenton,  N.  J.,  Liverpool,  Ohio,  and  other  places  make  large 
quantities  of  all  kinds  of  ware. 

Porcelain  originally  came  from  China  and  Japan.  In  171 1  Bot- 
tiger  of  Saxony  accidentally  discovered  that  a  clay  at  Meissen  near 
Dresden  was  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  It  was  not 
long  until  the  secret  became  known   in  Vienna  and  kaolin   suitable 


194 


MAN  UFA  CTURES. 


for  porcelain  was  found  elsewhere  in  Europe.  Factories  for  the  manu- 
facture of  porcelain  were  started  at  Vienna,  Munich,  Sevres,  and  in 
towns  in  Staffordshire,  England.  The  products  of  these  have  been  so 
improved  that  to-day  Sevres  vases  and  Dresden  china  are  the  finest  kind 
of  art  work  and  are  equal  to  those  made  in  China. 

In  the  United  States  fine  porcelain  is  made  at  Trenton,  N.  J., 
Greenpoint,  N.  Y.,  and  other  places.  The  United  Kingdom,  Germany, 
France,  Austria,  and  the  United  States  are  the  largest  pottery-manu- 
facturing countries.     The  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  each  export 

over  $9  ooo  ooo  worth  annually 
France  $6000000,  and  Austria 
$4  000  000.  The  United  States 
imported  about  $8  500  000  worth 
in  1900,  of  which  about  $1  000- 
000  worth  was  undecorated  and 
came  principally  from  the  United 
Kingdom  ;  $7  000  000  worth  was 
decorated  of  which  thirty  six  per 
cent  was  imported  from  France, 
thirty  per  cent  from  the  United 
Kingdom  and  eighteen  per  cent 
from  Germany.  Most  of  Ger- 
many's exports  are  sent  to  other 
European  countries.  Nearly  one 
third  of  the  chinaware  exported 
to  foreign  countries  from  the  United  Kingdom  is  sent  to  the  United 
States,  while  the  United  Kingdom,  United  States,  and  Germany  are  the 
largest  purchasers  of  French  china. 

Glassware. 

Glass  is  made  from  silica,  which  is  obtained  from  sand  and  sand- 
stone, rock  crystal,  and  flint.  It  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  sub- 
stances found  in  nature.  This  is  combined  with  soda,  potash,  alumina, 
lime,  oxide  of  lead,  or  other  substances.  The  best  white  quartz  sand  is 
found  in  Massachusetts  and  some  of  it  is  exported  for  the  manufacture 
of  fine  crystal  glass.     Alumina  and  lime  are  used  to  harden  the  glass, 


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FIG  82  —UNITED STATES  IMPORTS  OF  EARTHEN, 
STONE  AND  CHINA  WARE  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
DOLLARS, 


GLASS.  195 

and  oxide  of  lead  is  used  to  give  it  lustre  and  high  refractive  power. 
The  different  substances  are  carefully  sifted  and  mixed  together 
before  nielting.  This  mixture  is  called  ''frit"  or  ''batch"  and  is  melted 
in  pots  in  a  furnace.     The  pots  are  made  of  annealed  clay. 

In  making  plate  glass  the  molten  material  is  poured  on  a  casting 
table,  made  of  iron  and  perfectly  flat,  with  long  strips  of  metal  on 
the  side  to  regulate  the  thickness  of  the  glass  and  to  prevent  the  molten 
material  from  running  over.  A  roller  resting  on  the  strips  is  passed 
over  the  liquid  glass.  When  cool  enough  it  is  put  into  an  annealing 
oven  to  cool  gradually.  Pressed  glass  is  made  by  placing  it  w^ile  in  a 
molten  state  in  moulds  and  pressing  it  into  the  desired  shape.  In  this 
way  large  quantities  of  glassware  can  be  made  quickly  and  cheaply. 
Glassware  and  window  glass  are  also  made  by  using  a  blowing  tube 
made  of  iron.  It  is  covered  with  wood  to  protect  the  hands  of  the 
workmen  from  the  heat  and  is  about  five  feet  long.  A  mass  of  viscid 
glass  from  the  melting  pot  is  taken  up  on  the  end  of  the  tube  and  is 
inflated  by  blowing  through  the  tube.  It  is  shaped,  cut,  joined  with 
other  pieces  of  glass  and  decorated  while  in  a  heated  condition  until  it 
las  assumed  the  desired  shape. 

In  making  ordinary  window  glass  a  long  hollow  cylinder  is  formed 
which  is  cut  open  and  sent  to  the  flattening  room  where  the  heat  causes 
it  to  open  wider  and  it  is  flattened  out  by  the  workman  with  a  wooden 
polisher.  Glass  made  in  this  way  is  called  sheet  or  cylinder  glass. 
Another  method  of  making  flat  sheets  is  to  transfer  the  hollow  ball, 
after  it  has  been  blown  out,  to  the  end  of  an  iron  rod.  An  opening  is 
then  made  at  the  opposite  end  and  the  glass  twirled  around  until  it 
opens  out  into  a  flat  sheet  with  a  bull's  eye  in  the  middle.  This  is 
called  crown  glass. 

Flint  glass  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cut  glass.  It  is  cut  with 
a  wheel  turned  by  a  treadle.  Stained  glass  differs  from  painted  glass ; 
it  is  made  by  painting  the  glass  in  the  same  way  as  porcelain  and  then 
heating  it  again.  Colored  glass  is  made  by  mixing  oxides  of  different 
metals  with  the  original  materials.  i\ll  kinds  of  glass  have  to  be 
annealed  or  go  through  some  other  process  to  enable  them  to  stand 
ordinary  usage.  Annealing  consists  in  cooling  them  off  slowly  and 
equally.     Siemens  has  by  his  method  of  hardening  glass  made  it  possi- 


194 


MAN  UFA  CrURES. 


for  porcelain  was  found  elsewhere  in  Europe.  Factories  for  the  manu- 
facture of  porcelain  were  started  at  Vienna,  Munich,  Sevres,  and  in 
towns  in  Staffordshire,  England.  The  products  of  these  have  been  so 
improved  that  to-day  Sevres  vases  and  Dresden  china  are  the  finest  kind 
of  art  work  and  are  equal  to  those  made  in  China. 

In  the  United  States  fine  porcelain  is  made  at  Trenton,  N.  J., 
Greenpoint,  N.  Y.,  and  other  places.  The  United  Kingdom,  Germany, 
France,  Austria,  and  the  United  States  are  the  largest  pottery-manu- 
facturing countries.     The  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  each  export 

over  $9  ooo  ooo  worth  annually 
France  $6000000,  and  Austria 
$4000000.  The  United  States 
imported  about  $8  500  000  worth 
in  1900,  of  which  about  $1  000- 
000  worth  was  undecorated  and 
came  principally  from  the  United 
Kingdom  ;  $7  000  000  worth  was 
decorated  of  which  thirty  six  per 
cent  was  imported  from  France, 
thirty  per  cent  from  the  United 
Kingdom  and  eighteen  per  cent 
from  Germany.  Most  of  Ger- 
many's exports  are  sent  to  other 
European  countries.  Nearly  one 
third  of  the  chinaware  exported 
to  foreign  countries  from  the  United  Kingdom  is  sent  to  the  United 
States,  while  the  United  Kingdom,  United  States,  and  Germany  are  the 
largest  purchasers  of  French  china. 


70  JS  80  85|90|9I  92  93|9f  95i96|97  'bb  99  OOJOI  02,03  04105 

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FIG  82  —UNITED STATES  IMPORTS  OF  EARTHEN, 
STONE  AND  CHINA  WARE  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
DOLLARS. 


Glassware. 

Glass  is  made  from  silica,  which  is  obtained  from  sand  and  sand- 
stone, rock  crystal,  and  flint.  It  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  sub- 
stances found  in  nature.  This  is  combined  with  soda,  potash,  alumina, 
lime,  oxide  of  lead,  or  other  substances.  The  best  white  quartz  sand  is 
found  in  Massachusetts  and  some  of  it  is  exported  for  the  manufacture 
of  fine  crystal  glass.     Alumina  and  lime  are  used  to  harden  the  glass, 


GLASS.  195 

and  oxide  of  lead  is  used  to  give  it  lustre  and  high  refractive  power. 
The  different  substances  are  carefully  sifted  and  mixed  together 
before  njelting.  This  mixture  is  called  "frit"  or  ''batch"  and  is  melted 
in  pots  in  a  furnace.     The  pots  are  made  of  annealed  clay. 

In  making  plate  glass  the  molten  material  is  poured  on  a  casting 
table,  made  of  iron  and  perfectly  flat,  with  long  strips  of  metal  on 
the  side  to  regulate  the  thickness  of  the  glass  and  to  prevent  the  molten 
material  from  running  over.  A  roller  resting  on  the  strips  is  passed 
over  the  liquid  glass.  When  cool  enough  it  is  put  into  an  annealing 
oven  to  cool  gradually.  Pressed  glass  is  made  by  placing  it  while  in  a 
molten  state  in  moulds  and  pressing  it  into  the  desired  shape.  In  this 
way  large  quantities  of  glassware  can  be  made  quickly  and  cheaply. 
Glassware  and  window  glass  are  also  made  by  using  a  blowing  tube 
made  of  iron.  It  is  covered  with  wood  to  protect  the  hands  of  the 
workmen  from  the  heat  and  is  about  five  feet  long.  A  mass  of  viscid 
glass  from  the  melting  pot  is  taken  up  on  the  end  of  the  tube  and  is 
inflated  by  blowing  through  the  tube.  It  is  shaped,  cut,  joined  with 
other  pieces  of  glass  and  decorated  while  in  a  heated  condition  until  it 
has  assumed  the  desired  shape. 

In  making  ordinary  window  glass  a  long  hollow  cylinder  is  formed 
which  is  cut  open  and  sent  to  the  flattening  room  where  the  heat  causes 
it  to  open  wider  and  it  is  flattened  out  by  the  workman  with  a  wooden 
polisher.  Glass  made  in  this  w^ay  is  called  sheet  or  cylinder  glass. 
Another  method  of  making  flat  sheets  is  to  transfer  the  hollow  ball, 
after  it  has  been  blown  out,  to  the  end  of  an  iron  rod.  An  opening  is 
then  made  at  the  opposite  end  and  the  glass  twirled  around  until  it 
opens  out  into  a  flat  sheet  with  a  bull's  eye  in  the  middle.  This  is 
called  crown  glass. 

Flint  glass  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cut  glass.  It  is  cut  with 
a  wheel  turned  by  a  treadle.  Stained  glass  differs  from  painted  glass ; 
it  is  made  by  painting  the  glass  in  the  same  way  as  porcelain  and  then 
heating  it  again.  Colored  glass  is  made  by  mixing  oxides  of  different 
metals  with  the  original  materials.  All  kinds  of  glass  have  to  be 
annealed  or  go  through  some  other  process  to  enable  them  to  stand 
ordinary  usage.  Annealing  consists  in  cooling  them  off  slowly  and 
equally.     Siemens  has  by  his  method  of  hardening  glass  made  it  possi- 


196  MANUFACTURES. 

ble  to  manufacture  glass  hard  enough  to  be  used  for  railway  sleepers 
and  grindstones. 

The  manufacture  of  glass  is,  like  that  of  pottery,  an  ancient  art. 
Its  finer  forms  were  introduced  into  Greece  and  Rome  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians who  no  doubt  learned  the  art  from  the  Egyptians. 

Belgium,  Austria,  Germany,  France,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the 
United  States  are  all  large  glass  manufacturing  countries.  With  the 
exception  of  the  United  States  they  are  all  large  exporters  of  glass 
and  glassware.  The  United  Kingdom  is  the  largest  importer  of  glass- 
ware, the  value  of  the  imports  in  1900  being  three  times  that  of  the 
United  States.  Of  the  $5  000  000  worth  imported  by  the  latter,  win- 
dow glass  unpolished  is  imported  from  Belgium  and  polished  from 
Germany.  Bottles  are  supplied  by  France  and  Germany,  and  plate 
^lass  by  Belgium,  England,  France  and  Germany.  Glass  is  made  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States,  sand  of  good  quality  suitable  for  its 
manufacture  being  found  in  many  places.  Natural  gas  regions  are 
centres  for  its  manufacture  because  of  the  advantages  derived  from  the 
use  of  gas  as  a  fuel.  Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  glass  manufacturing 
state;  a  greater  number  of  glass  factories  are  situated  in  Western 
Pennsylvania  than  in  any  other  locality  in  the  United  States.  Ohio, 
New  Jersey,  Indiana  also  have  large  glass  industries. 

Other  lines  of  raw  materials  and  manufactures  will  be  treated  of 
in  connection  with  the  localities  in  which  they  are  produced. 


APPENDIX. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    PUBLICATIONS. 

The  following  documents  are  published  by  the  Government  and  furnished 
free  of  cost.  They  can  be  secured  by  application  to  the  various  departments  or 
through  the  members  of  Congress.  They  should  be  secured  by  teachers  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  fully  meet  the  wants  of  students  in  the  preparation  of 
the  supplementary  work  required  in  connection  with  this  text  as  outlined  in  the 
Teacher's  Syllabus. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE. 

Monthly  Consular  Reports,  containing  recentcommercial  information. 
Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States,  2  vols.,  giving  a  good  idea  of  foreign 

trade.     Prepared  by  Hon.  Frederic  Emory. 
Special  Consular  Reports,  treating  on  special  articles. 

TREASURY    DEPARTMENT. 

Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  of  the  United  States,  containing 
monthly  statistics  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  and  monographs  on 
different  products,  as  cotton,  coal,  etc.,  and  countries,  as  Africa,  Asia,  etc., 
and  on  the  Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

Annual  Report  of  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  United  States,  giving  full 
statistics  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  for  ten  years  by  articles  and  by 
countries. 

Statistical  Abstract,  containing  a  brief  review  of  all  Government  Statistics  relat- 
ing to  internal  and  foreign  commerce. 
The  above  Statistical  Reports  are  prepared  by  Hon.  O.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of 

the  Bureau  of  Statistics. 

INTERIOR   DEPARTMENT. 

Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  containing  a  complete  account  of 
mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  compared  with  other  countries. 
Published  by  the  Geological  Survey. 


198  APPENDIX. 

DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  containing  articles  on  the  various 
agricultural  products  of  the  world. 

Publications  of  the  various  departments  containing  information  on  the  subject 

to  which  they  are  devoted: 
Weather  Bureau. 

Division  of  Forestry,  Hon.  Giflford  Pinchot,  Forester. 
Section  of  Foreign  Markets,  F.  H.  Hitchcock,  Chief. 
Division  of  Statistics,  John  Hyde,  Statistician. 
Crop  Reporter,  containing  monthly  review  of  condition  of  crops  in  the  United 

States  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 


Bureau  of  American  Republics — Monthly  Bulletin  and  Monographs  on  different 

Latin  American  countries. 
Report  of  the  Industrial  Commission. 
Report  of  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 
United  States  Census  Reports. 
Annual  Report  of  Fisheries  Commission. 

In  different  States  reports  of  mines  and  other  industries  are  given  as — New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  etc. 


The  following  are  not  published  by  the  Government. 

Statesman's  Yearbook.     New  York.     (Highest  authority.) 

The  International  Geography.     Mill.     New  York. 

Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography.     London. 

Carpenter's  Geographical  Readers.     New  York. 

Shaler.     United  States  of  America.     New  York, 

Mulhall.     Dictionary  of  Statistics,     New  York. 

Mulhall.     Industries  and  Wealth  of  Nations.-    New  York, 

International  Yearbook.     New  York. 

Mayo-Smith.     Statistics  and  Economics.     New  York. 

Rothwell.     Mineral  Industry.     New  York. 

Yeat's  Manuals  of  Commerce.     London. 

De  Colange.     The  American  Encyclopedia  of  Commerce.     Boston. 

Die  Landbauzonen  der  Aussertropischen  Lander.     Berlin. 

Herbertson.     Earth  and  Man.     London. 


APPENDIX. 


199 


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APPENDIX. 


207 


WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  CEREALS. 


Millions  of  Bushels. 


Corn. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

COUNTRIES, 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

United  States  .... 

2  078 

547 

522 

796 

809 

73 

58 

23 

23 

Canada  

22 

59 

44 

129 

113 

23 

22 

2 

2 

Mexico 

110 

12 

15 

, 

10 

10 

.    . 

Chile 

9 

13 

12 

. 

Argentina 

75 

104 

101 

.    . 

.    . 

.    . 

Uruguay   

6 

7 

6 

-,    . 

France  

25 

364 

309 

270 

252 

45 

43 

66 

63 

Spain 

24 

100 

105 

12 

9 

53 

55 

20 

19 

Portugal 

16 

6 

8 

.    . 

.    . 

Italy 

88 

137 

119 

16 

16 

8 

7 

2 

'3 

Austria -V 

'    142 

204 

---m 

--^1 

193 

130 

"11-a 

-187 

—Wt 

Roumania 

27 

26 

56 

6 

8 

4 

14 

1 

5 

Bulgaria 

20 

21 

30 

5 

8 

6 

11 

4 

7 

Servia 

15 

9 

10 

.    . 

.    . 

.    . 

.   . 

Russia  (Europe)    .    . 

30 

393 

395 

908 

812 

218 

232 

880 

903 

United  Kingdom  .    . 

69 

57 

171 

170 

76 

70 

2 

2 

Sweden 

4 
3 

4 

5 
3 
4 

53 
37 
15 

69 
35 
16 

11 

21 
3 

14 

21 

3 

21 
18 
11 

26 

Denmark 

18 

Netherlands    .... 

12 

Belgium 

12 

4 
141 

12 

4 
141 

17 
474 

20 

488 

3 
137 

3 
137 

16 
341 

19 

Switzerland      .... 

Germany 

336 

Turkey  (Europe)   .    . 

15 

20 

Greece 

2 
13 

3 
14 

•    • 

Egypt . 

30 

Cape  Colony    .... 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

.    . 

Algeria      

22 

23 

4 

6 

33 

34 

.    . 

4 
56 

6 
50 

'25 

"25 

7 
3 

7 
3 

Australasia 

10 

Russia  Asia     .... 

93 
35 

62 
30 

86 

40 

8 

4 

31 

16 

Turkey  Asia    .... 

.    . 

2 

2 

.    . 

.    . 

Persia    .    • 

16 

236 

20 

16 

182 

20 

•    • 

"  44 

*44 

"  34 

British  India  .... 

.    . 

laoan     

35 

208 


APPENDIX. 


UNITED  STATES  PRODUCTION  OF  CEREALS. 

Millions  of  Bushels. 


Corn. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

Maine    . 
New  Hampsh) 
Vermont  .    . 
Massachusetts 
Rhode  Island 
Connecticut 
New  York   . 
New  Jersey 
Pennsylvania 
Delaware  .    . 
Maryland 
Virginia    .    . 
North  Carolin; 
South  Carolinj 
Georgia     .    . 
Florida  .    .    . 
Alabama  .    . 
Mississippi  . 
Louisiana     . 
Texas    .    .    . 
Arkansas  .    . 
Tennessee    . 
West  Virginia 
Kentucky     . 
Ohio  .... 
Michigan      . 
Indiana     .    . 
Illinois  .    .    . 
Wisconsin    . 
Minnesota    . 
Iowa  .... 
Missouri   .    . 
Kansas  .    .    . 
Nebraska  .   . 
South  Dakota 
North  Dakota 
Montana  .    . 
Wyoming    . 
Colorado  .    . 
New  Mexico 
Arizona    .    , 
Utah  .... 
Nevada     .    . 
Idaho     .    .    . 
Washington 
Oregon     .    . 
California     . 
Oklahoma    . 

re 
1 

.4 

.9 

1.7 

1.4 

.2 

1.7 

15.6 

9.9 

40.2 

4.5 

18  5 

34  8 

31  9 

167 

32.4 

5.0 

33.0 

39.0 

25.8 

81.1 

48  0 

59.9 

18.0 

55.3 

99  0 

26.4 

141.8 

247.1 

41.6 

31.1 

242.2 

162.9 

237.6 

224  3 

30.0 

.5 

.    . 

'2."9 
.4 

'  .1 

'% 

1.5 
10  1 

.4 

.9 

1.9 

1.5 

2 

1.7 

17.2 

8.4 

32.7 

5  0 

15.2 

28.1 

29.7 

13.1 

34.1 

4.1 

29.3 

252 

24.7 

81.9 

45  2 

56.9 

19.2 

69.2 

106.8 

38.8 

153.2 

264.1 

49.5 

31.7 

305.8 

180.7 

163  8 

210.4 

32.4 

.3 

■3.1 
.5 

'  .1 

'  .1 

.3 

1.3 

14.1 

'7.0 

1.7 

20.4 

.9 

10.7 

6.3 

3.4 

.9 

2.0 

'  .4 

■90 

1.9 

8.2 

3.8 

8.2 

39.9 

13,3 

25.3 

12.6 

11.7 

68.2 

18.1 

11.3 

36  4 

20.7 

37.7 

51.7 

1.7 

.3 

73 

2.5 

.3 

37 

.6 

3.4 

21.7 

21.9 

33.7 

16  2 

'6.4 
2.3 

20.2 
1.4 

15.1 
9.4 
5.9 
2.1 
5.0 

■  .9 

23.3 
26 

11  6 
4.4 

12  4 
8.5 
9.2 
6.4 

17.9 
13.1 
51.5 
21.7 
18.8 
82.4 
24.8 
20.1 
13.1 

1.9 
.3 

7.2 

3.8 
.3 

3.6 
.9 

3.1 
25.0 
16.1 
28  5 
18.6 

4.9 

1.0 

3.9 

4 

.5 

45  4 

2.2 

39.1 

.3 

1.6 

5.1 

4.7 

3.0 

4.2 

.3 

3.0 

1.3 

.5 

17.0 

5.9 

5.3 

3.1 

8.1 

32.9 

30.5 

34.3 

127.2 

67.6 

52.6 

126.9 

20  2 

39.1 

51.4 

15  3 

17.9 

23 

.4 

2.4 

.1 

'  .8 

1.0 
30 
5.1 
1.8 

5.2 

.9 

3.7 

.5 

.1 

.5 

44.5 

2.8 

38.0 

.3 

1.7 

51 

5.0 

4.0 

7.0 

.3 

4.3 

2,3 

.6 

28.2 

7.0 

5.8 

2.7 

9.3 

40.3 

33.6 

44.8 

133.6 

61.9 

41.9 

130.5 

24.6 

43.0 

37.7 

12.6 

6.2 

2.5 

.6 

32 

.2 

.9 

1.8 
3.0 

3.a 

1.4 

.3 
.1 
.5 

4.0 
*  .1 

■  .6 
.9 
.1 
.3 

76 

8.1 

12.0 

■3.1 

.9 

2.4 

5.9 

.2 

"  .3 

■  .1 

'  A 

1.4 

.7 

23.2 

.3 
.1 
.5 

'3.7 
"  .1 

'  .6 

.9 

.1 

.3 

6.2 

7.2 

11.7 

■4.1 

.5 

15 

1.9 

.2 

'  .3 

*  .2 

'  .3 

1.3 

.9 

14.8 

.1 

.'2 
3.6 
1.0 
3.9 

.'3 
.3 
.3 

'  .1 

.1 

.2 

.6 

1.0 

.4 

1.1 

30 

1.1 

2.0 

.1 

1.5 

.9 

.2 

.5 

.1 

.'2 

3.1 
1.0 
4.4 

.'4 
.3 
.4 

.1 

.1 

.1 

.2 

.5 

1.0 

.4 

1.2 

3.0 

1.0 

1.8 

.1 

1.9 

.8 

.5 

Total  . 

2078.1 

2105.0 

547.3 

52 

22 

796.0 

809.1 

73.3 

58.9 

2 

3.9 

2 

3.9 

APPENDIX. 

WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  STIMULANTS  AND 
NARCOTICS. 


United  Kingdom.    , 

Russia 

Norway 

Sweden , 

Denmark    .    .    .    .    , 
Germany.   .        .    .    . 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Switzerland.  .    ,    . 

Italy 

vAustria-Hungary.V 
Koumania.      .    .    . 
United  States.  .    . 

Portugal 

Spain 

Corsica 

Algeria    ..... 

Tunis 

Azores,  etc.    .    .    . 

Turkey 

Greece 

Bulgaria 

Servia 

Argentina.      .    .    . 

Chile 

Peru 

Brazil 

Uruguay 

Australia 

Venezuela  .... 
Central  America  . 

Java 

Mexico 

Haiti 

China 

India 

Ceylon 

Japan 

Cape  Colony  .    .    . 


Beer. 


Spirits. 


Wine. 


Millions  of  Gallons. 


1302 

115 

10 

49 

51 

1460 

301 

210 

46 

2 

454 

968 


60.6 

159.1 

1  9 

88 

7.3 

144  6 

15.1 

l:iO 

106.1 

2.3 

8.3 

105.6 

67.1  ? 
1.5 
6.6 


84.4 


50  1 


881.7 
23  7 

818.4 
712 

155.7 
39.6 
84  4 

620  4 
52  8 

121.4 
52  8 
52  8 
48  1 
39  6 
95.0 
29.0 
46.0 
73  9 
47  5 
13.2 
26 
13  2 


Coffee. 


Tea. 


Millions  of  Pounds, 


52.8 


1415 


198.0 

139  9 

85  8 

58  0 

46.2 


13 


217 

175 

188 

45 


210 


APPENDIX, 


SUGAR   PRODUCTION. 

BEET  SUGAR. 


Tons. 

Germany 1  950  000 

France 1  125  000 

Austria-Hungary 1  075  000 

Russia 890  000 


Tons. 


Belgium 340  000 

Holland 170  000 

Other  countries  ......     400  000 


Total 5  950  000 


CANE  SUGAR. 

Tons. 


Java 670  000 

Cuba 500  000 

Louisiana 340  000 

Hawaii 230  000 

Mauritius 160  000 

Brazil     150  000 

Peru 120  000 


Tons. 


Demarara 90  000 

Egypt 90  000 

Antilles 85  000 

Porto  Rico 70  000 

Philippines 50  000 

Other 205  000 


Total 2  850  000 


The  following  table  shows  the  world's  production  of  beet  and 
cane  sugar  at  decennial  periods  from  1840  to  1900  and  the  percentage 
of  the  world's  product  at  each  period  named  supplied  by  beet  sugar  : 


Years. 

Cane  Sugar. 
Tons. 

Beet  Sugar. 
Tons. 

Total  Sugar. 
Tons. 

Supplied  by 

Beet  Sugar. 

Per  cent. 

1840 

1  100  000 

50  000 

1  150  000 

4.35 

1850 

1  200  000 

200  000 

1  400  000 

14.29 

1860 

1510  000 

389  000 

1  899  000 

20.43 

1870 

1  535  000 

831  000 

2  416  000 

34.40 

1880 

1  852  000 

1  402  000 

3  254  000 

43.08 

1890 

2  069  000 

3  633  000 

5  702  000 

63.70 

1900 

2  850  000 

5  950  000 

8  800  000 

67.71 

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APPENDIX. 


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APPENDIX. 

WOOL  AND  COTTON,  UNITED  STATES. 


^15 


Wool. 

Cotton, 

Production. 

Imports. 

Production. 

Exports. 

Millions  of  Pounds. 

Millions  of  Bales. 

1840 

35.8 

9.8 

1850 

52.5 

18  6 

2.2 

1.5 

1860 

60.2 

26  2 

4.8 

3.7 

1806 

155.0 

71.2 

2.2 

1.5 

1870 

162.0 

49.2 

3  1 

21 

1875 

181.0 

54  9 

3.8 

26 

1880 

232.5 

128.1 

5.7 

38 

1885 

308.0 

70.5 

5  7. 

3.9 

1890 

276.0 

105.4 

7.2 

4.9 

1891 

285.0 
294.0 

129.3 
148.6 

8.6 
9.0 

5  7 

1893 

5.8 

1893 

303.1 

172.4 

6.6 

4.3 

1894 

298  0 

55.1 

7.5 

5.2 

1895 

309.7 

206.0 

9.8 

6.7 

1896 

272.4 

230  9 

7.1 

4.6 

1897 

259.1 

350.8 

8.7 

5.9 

1898 

266.7 

272.1 

132  7 

76  7 

11.2 
112 

75 

1899 

7.3 

1900 

288.6 

155.9 

9.4 

5.9 

WORLD'S   PRODUCTION   OF  WOOL  AND   SILK  (1900). 


Millions  of  Pounds. 


United  Kingdom 

Russia 

France   

Spain 

Germany  .    .    .    . 

Austria-Hungary 
Italy    ....... 

Portugal    .    .    .    . 

Sweden-Norway 
Switzerland  .    .    . 
Turkey,  etc.  .    .    . 

United  States  .    . 

Canada  

Mexico 

Argentina     .    .    . 

Chili 

Brazil 


Wool. 


140.2 

361.1 

103  6 

102.6 

49  5 

64.3 

21.4 

13.4 

8.2 

*67.5 

288.6 

12.0 

5.0 

370.0 

7.5 

1.5 


Silk. 


Uruguay  .  .  . 
Venezuela  .  . 
Russia  (Asia) 
British  India  . 
Turkey  (Asia) 
Central  Asia  . 
China  .... 
Australasia 
Algeria  and  Tunis 

Egypt 

British  So.  Africa 

Japan    

Levant     .... 
Other 


Total 


Wool. 


96.0 
15.0 
60.0 
85.0 
33.0 
46.0 
35.0 

510.0 

30.4 

30 

100  0 


55  3 


2  685.1 


Silk. 


14.3 


7.1 
3.4 


34.4 


316 


APPENDIX. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

[899  OR  Latest  Available  Statistics. 

Thousands  of  Tons. 


United  States 

United  Kingdom 

Germany  and  Luxemburg    . 

France    

Belgium     

Austria 

Russia 

Sweden 

Spain 

Italy 

Canada    

Japan  

Cuba    .    .    .    ,   

Greece     

Algeria 

India 

New  South  Wales 


Iron  Ore. 


25  000 

14  177 

17  990 

4  731 

217 

3  400 

4  107 
2  303 
9  234 

201 

68 

27 

368 

485 

474 

43 


Pig  Iron. 


13  621 

9  305 

8  142 

2  567 

1036 

1427 

2  222 

532 

296 

8 

94 

58 


Steel. 


10  640 

5  000 

6  290 
1554 

729 

880 

1494 

265 

123 

95 

22 


Coal. 

230  839 

220  085 

135  824 

32  356 

21917 

37  786 

12  862 

236 

2  742 

341 

4  077 

5  647 

17 

4136 
4  597 


APPENDIX. 


217 


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218 


APPENDIX. 


GOLD    AND   SILVER   PRODUCTION   OF  THE   WORLD 
AND  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Millions  of  Dollars. 


United  States. 

World. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

1863 

40.0 

8.8 

122.9 

47.6 

1868 

48.0 

12.3 

129,6 

57.0 

1873 

36.0 

35.8 

96.2 

82.1 

1878 

51.2 

40.2 

119.0 

84.5 

1883 

30.0 

39.6 

95.3 

98.9 

1888 

33.1 

32.8 

43.0 
46.7 

110.1 
123.4 

102.1 

1889 

112.4 

1890 

32  8 

57.2 

118.8 

131  9 

1891 

33.1 

57.6 

130.6 

135.5 

1892 

33.0 

55.5 

146.6 

133.4 

1893 

35.9 

46.8 

157.4 

129.1 

1894 

39.5 

31.4 

181.1 

104.4 

1895 

46.6 

36.4 

198.7 

109.5 

1896 

53  0 

39.6 

202.2 

105  8 

1897 

57.3 

32.3 

236.0 

96.2 

1898 

64.4 

32.1 

286.5 

102.2 

1899 

71.0 

32.8 

306.5 

100.3 

1900 

78.1 

36.5 

255.9 

112.2 

PRICES 


1868 
1870 
1873 
1875 
1880 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 


Steel  Rails. 
Pittsburg. 


158.50 
106.75 
120.50 
68.75 
67.50 
28.50 
34.50 
37.08 
29.83 
29.25 
31.75 


Foundry  Pig, 
Philadelphia. 


39.25 
33.25 
42.75 
25.50 
28.50 
18.00 
18.71 
20.92 
18.88 
17.75 


1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 


Steel  Rails. 
Pittsburg. 


29.92 
30.00 
28.12 
24.00 
24  33 
28.00 
18.75 
17.62 
28.12 
31.00 


Foundry  Pic. 
Philadelphia. 


17.52 
15.75 
14.52 
12.66 
13.10 
12.95 
12.10 
11.66 
19.36 
15.40 


APPENDIX. 


219 


MACHINERY  TRADE. 


Millions  of  Dollars. 


United 

States. 

United 
Kingdom. 

Germany. 

France. 

Date. 

S 

u5 

CO 

a    . 
■      E 

1—1 

1 

X 

I 

1 

1 

a 

X 

a 

E 
1— 1 

o 

a 

X 

W 

L885  .....    

L886 

.9 

1.2 
19 
2.0 
2.4 
2.8 
27 
2.8 
33 
1.4 
1.6 
28 
1.2 
1.8 
1.6 
35 

7.9 
7.2 
7.8 
8.7 
11.2 

14  2 
16  3 
16.2 

15  8 
15.1 
17.2 
21.6 
29.4 
34.0 
44.2 
55  4 

13 

>^ 

u 

a, 
<u 

10.4 
13.7 
17.0 
15.9 

53.5 
48.5 
53  1 
62.2 
73  3 
78.5 
75.3 
65.3 
66.0 
62.1 
71.1 
80  2 
75.9 
86.5 
918 
98  1 

5.7 

4.7 

5.4 

6.6 

8.0 

10.4 

7.7 

6.6 

6.4 

6.8 

7.7 

9.2 

10.8 

13.1 

16.6 

19  6 

12.4 
12.0 
13.1 
14  1 
15.4 
16.5 
16.6 
15.4 
15.8 
19.5 
22  4 
26.7 
29.9 
34.0 
29.4 
452 

8.7 

.  7.7 

8.6 

7.5 

8.8 

9.7 

11.0 

11.0 

9.3 

11.4 

11.7 

12.4 

13.5 

15  5 

20.7 

28,2 

5.4 
.'^i  4. 

L887. 

L888 

6.2 

7  0 

L889 

8  4 

L890 

9.5 

9  0 

L891 

L892 

7  1 

L893 

L894 

1895 

L896 

L897 

898 

60 
7.0 
7.3 
9.2 
87 
11  0 

899 

.900 

12.3 
12.2 

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